
Class LB/OZ^ 
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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



TEACHING: 

ITS AIMS AND METHODS 



BY 

LEVI SEELEY, Ph.D. 

PROEESSOR OF PEDAGOGY IN THE NEW JERSEY 

STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 

AUTHOR OF "a NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT," " THE FOUNDATIONS OF 

EDUCATION," "elementary PEDAGOGY," " THE GERMAN COMMON 

SCHOOL SYSTEM," "HISTORY OF EDUCATION," ETC. 



I9I5 

HINDS, NOBLE, & ELDREDGE, PUBLISHERS 

30 Irving Place, New York City 



1 B\f>^^ 



COPYRIGHT, 191 5, BY 
INDS, NOBLE, & ELDREDGE 



NOV 12 (915 

©aA4 14532 



PREFACE 

Teaching has long been made to appear an occu- 
pation, a calling, or a trade. Men have engaged in it 
as a makeshift, often a stepping-stone to some other 
profession. It has been largely a matter of experience 
in which the teacher employed the methods by which 
he had been taught as a child. So long as this was 
the case there could be little progress. Indeed, experi- 
ence is a costly schoolmaster, costly not only for the 
pupils upon whom experiments are made, and for the 
community that pays the bills, but also for the ex- 
perimenter himself. For he can reach efficiency only 
by a long and tedious process and with countless mis- 
takes. Just as the untrained physician would reach 
professional proficiency only at an awful cost of human 
Hfe and a fearful amount of suffering, so the untrained 
teacher must necessarily carry on his work at a tre- 
mendous loss. Hence normal schools, training schools, 
and teachers' colleges have been established to prepare 
teachers, as medical schools and clinics have been 
founded to prepare physicians. 

The world has been rather slow to grasp the idea 
that teaching is a profession and that teachers must 
needs be trained. Indeed, there are still many boards 
of education, especially in rural districts, that do not 
appreciate this fact and are willing to employ, because 
they are cheap, teachers who are unprepared. But 



IV PREFACE 

great strides have been made in this country during 
the last half century. In most cities a professional 
basis has already been reached, and the rural com- 
munities are increasingly demanding better prepared 
teachers. 

The purpose of this book is clearly to set forth what 
teaching is and what we have a right to expect from 
it, what material should be presented to the pupils, 
what method employed, and what the product should 
be. It is not designed to outline courses of study 
in the various subjects treated. That would be too 
large an undertaking. Nor would it be wise, at 
least in many subjects, because each community and 
each school must suit its curriculum to its particular 
needs. There is no doubt that the future courses of 
study will allow greater freedom, not only for the 
school, but also for the individual. The ideal will be 
reached when the courses of study are so flexible 
that each child can be given the kind of intellectual 
food that he can digest and that will best fit him for 
the Hfe he is to live, that will take into account his 
individual capacity. The attempt is made, however, 
to discover and elucidate the underlying principles of 
teaching, to indicate the material to choose, to suggest 
the methods that are best, and to show how to deter- 
mine the value of the results. Every teacher should 
clearly understand these things else the work will be 
largely perfunctory or experimental. 

It is hoped that students of normal schools and 
training schools and of other institutions whose pur- 
pose it is to train teachers will fmd in this book stimu- 
lating and suggestive material to aid them in their 



PREFACE V 

practice and method work, and also to open up to them 
the great problems of education that they are studying. 

Then, too, there are many reading circles, teachers' 
clubs, and other organizations engaged in studying 
educational works and theories. The design here is to 
suggest an abundance of material for their study, 
criticism, and discussion. Such work is encouraged by 
superintendents and boards of education, and in many 
cases, made the basis of promotion. 

Finally, I have not been unmindful of the needs of 
the lonely district school teacher who has but little 
suggestive supervision and who cannot join with others 
for study, mutual criticism, and stimulating help. 
There are many young teachers in this condition, who 
have lofty ambitions and high purpose, and yet who 
do not know how to set about self-improvement in 
the profession they have chosen. Many of these have 
gained the notion that works on education are dry, 
hard to understand, and withal of little practical 
use to them in their work. There is no reason why 
educational Hterature should be dry or difficult to com- 
prehend. It deals with the most interesting and sug- 
gestive questions, as well as the most important ones, 
namely, those concerned with the development of the 
boys and girls, the future men and women of our land. 

I therefore make no apology for not seeking to be 
profound. If my readers understand my meaning; if 
they find the discussions stimulating and helpful; if 
they are aided in the great work to which they have 
consecrated themselves; if they gain a nobler concep- 
tion of this work; if they see a Httle more clearly how 
to perform that work; and if they are shown how to 



VI PREFACE 

understand, how to appreciate, how to help little chil- 
dren, then I shall have accomplished my purpose. 

I desire to acknowledge the valuable assistance given 
me by Prof. Frank H. Scobey, chair of Mathematics, 
and Miss Margaret S. Cochran, chair of Domestic 
Science, both of the State Normal School, Trenton, 
N.J. 

LEVI SEELEY 
State Normal School, 
Trenton, N. J. 



PAGE 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I 

What is Teaching? 

I. Teaching is a science. — Science defined. — Reasons for classi- 
fying as a science: i. Because of accumulated and established 
knowledge. — 2. Because of scientific works on education. — 3. 
Because of organizations for the study of education. — 4, Be- 
cause of institutions maintained for the scientific study of 
education. — 5. Because it is recognized as a science. — 
II. Teaching is an art. — Christ's method a model: i. It was 
suited to his hearers. — 2. It abounded in concrete illustrations. 
— 3. It drew from nature and from environment. — 4. It was 
simple and yet logical. — 5. It exalted the truth. — 6. It was 
authoritative. — 7. It was sympathetic. — III. Definition of 
teaching: i. Knowledge the first essential. — 2. Power to im- 
part. — 3. The old-time teacher. — 4. Manner of imparting. — 
5. The German method. 



CHAPTER II 

Motives for Becoming a Teacher 22 

The need of teachers. — The untrained teacher. — Motives. — i. 
Earning of a livelihood. — Many new teachers. — 2. The 
desire for self -improvement. — 3. The patriotic motive. — 4. 
The altruistic motive. 



CHAPTER III 

The Growth of the Teacher '. 38 

The "born" teacher. — Need of growth while teaching. — Means 
of development: I. Reading. — (a) Educational journals — 
(b) Pedagogical works. — (c) General literature. — II. Teachers' 
meetings. — (a) faculty meetings. — (b) teacher's associations. 
— III. Teachers' institutes. — IV. Pedagogical courses. 



Vlll CONTENTS 

CHAPTER IV 

Waste in Education 53 

Waste an American characteristic. — Cause of waste in education: 
I. Waste in the selection of material.- — (a) What should be 
eliminated. — (6) What the child should know. — 2. Waste in the 
employment of incompetent teachers. — 3. Waste in wrong 
methods. — 4. Waste the result of poor physical conditions. — 
5. Waste in the limited use of the school plant. — The school 
to be a social center. — 6. Other causes of waste. 

CHAPTER V 

Backward and Defective Children 76 

The problem of the backward child. — Causes of backwardness. 

— Class A, Miscellaneous. — Class B, Incorrigibles. — Class C, 
The mentally subnormal. — State aid for special classes. — The 
Vineland summer school. — The kind of teacher required for 
each class. — The work of an industrial school. — Need of 
flexible school courses. 

CHAPTER VI 

The Maintenance of Order 91 

The necessity of order. — What is good order? — Practical sugges- 
tions: I. Make as few rules as possible. — 2. Keep control. 

— 3. Be positive and firm. — 4. Punishment — Principles 
concerning. — Kinds of punishment. — i. Reproof. — 2. 
Deprivation of privileges. — 3. Deportment marks. — 4. 
Suspension and expulsion. — 5. Corporal punishment. 

CHAPTER VII 

The Art of Questioning iii 

The textbook in the recitation. — The Socratic method. — Char- 
acteristics of good questions: i. The questions should be 
simple. — 2. Questions should be sequential. — 3. Questions 
should aim to discover knowledge possessed. — 4. Answers in 
complete sentences. — 5. Questions should lead to new knowl- 
edge. — 6. Questions should provoke thought. 

CHAPTER VIII 

General Methods of Teaching 129 

Progress in methods. — i. The Oswego Normal School. — 2. The 

Quincy Methods. — 3. The Herbartian Movement. — What 



CONTENTS ix 

is method? — ^The teacher's personality. — The essentials of 
method. — Different methods of instruction. — i. Oral work. 
— 2. Written work. — 3. The lecture method. — 4. The 
inductive method. — 5. The deductive method. 

CHAPTER IX 

Aims and Methods in Reading 146 

I. Aims. — II. Methods. — General suggestions: i. Clearness. — 
2. Naturalness. — 3. Accuracy. — 4. Selection of material. — 
5. Training in thinking. 

CHAPTER X 

The Teaching of Spelling 155 

Place of spelling in the school. — I. Aims. — II. Methods and 
devices. — i. Written and oral work. — 2. System. — 3. 
Drill. — 4. Rules. — 5. Capitals and syllabication. — 6. Com- 
position. — 7. The dictionary. — The spelling-bee. 

CHAPTER XI 

Training in Language 162 

'■ Influence of the environment. — I. Aims. — II. Methods. — 
Language lessons. — Grammar. — Composition. 

CHAPTER XII 

Geography Teaching 169 

Scope of the Subject. — I. Aims in teaching geography — II. 
Methods of Teaching. — (a) Home geography. — (b) Excur- 
sions. — The elementary course. 

CHAPTER XIII 

The Teaching of History 178 

Importance of history — I. Aims and Values. — II. Methods of 
teaching: i. In the primary grades. — 2. In the interme- 
diate grades. — The battlefield of Jena. — 3. In the grammar 
grades. 

CHAPTER XIV 

The Teaching of Arithmetic 190 

Importance of the subject. — What arithmetic should include. — 
I. Aims in teaching arithmetic. — II Methods in teaching 
arithmetic. — The concentric or spiral plan. — The sequence 
of topics. — Oral and written work. — Arithmetic must be 
pMicticAl. — A course of study in arithmetic. 



X CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XV 

Instruction in Physiology and Hygiene 217 

The duty of the school toward public health: i. Defective eye- 
sight. — 2. Defective hearing, — 3. Contagious diseases. — 
4. Food and eating. — 5. Temperance instruction. — 6. Dan- 
gers of narcotics. 

CHAPTER XVI 

The Importance of Manual Training 231 

The change in industrial conditions. — Definition of manual train- 
ing. — Industrial vs. manual training. — I. The aim of manual 
training. — The place of manual training. — II. Methods and 
topics in manual training. — i. Basketry, clay-modeling, 
etc. — 2. Drawing and design. — 3. Wood-working and 
metal-working. — 4. Work in brass and copper. 

CHAPTER XVII 

Training in the Household Arts 248 

The increasing duties of the school. What is domestic science? 
The Sixth Annual Lake Placid Convention. — The scope of 
home economy. — i. Foods. — 2. Marketing. — 3. Cooking. 
— 4. Harmony of foods. — 5. Sanitation. — 6. Disease. — 7. 
Clothing. — 8. The servant question. — 9. Care of children. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

Instruction in Agriculture 262 

The need for instruction in agriculture. — Home project plan of 
Massachusetts. — "Part-time" work. — What lessons can 
be taught. — i. Seeds. — 2. Soils. — 3. Fertilizers. — 4. Ro- 
tation of crops. — 5. Insects. — 6. The dairy. — 7. Farm ac- 
counts. — 8. The school garden. — 9. Additional topics. 

CHAPTER XIX 

Efficiency in Education 277 

Criticism of the school : The more important duty of the school. — 
How the school meets the new demands: i. Prevocational 
schools. — 2. The supplementary or continuation schools. — 3. 
Vocational schools. — 4. The six-and six plan. — 5. Part-time 
schools. 



CONTENTS , XI 

CHAPTER XX 

Moral Instiuctiou m the School 292 

Importance of instruction in morals. — Religion and morals. — 
Means of moral instruction. — i. The character of the teacher. 

— 2. Insistence on regularity of attendance. — 3. Importance 
of the physical side. — 4. The employment of the pupil's time. 

— 5. Influence of environment. — 6. Material from fact and 
fiction. — 7. Moral ideals in sports. — 8. Moral basis of all 
school activities. — (a) Cheating. — (b) The discipline. — 
9. What to teach. 



"Teaching: Its Aims and Methods 

CHAPTER I 

WHAT IS TEACHING? 

In the early stages of the history of the human race 
all the instruction that children received was imparted 
by the parents. There were no teachers and no schools 
nor was there need for either. Men lived in tents and 
migrated from place to place seeking pasture for 
their flocks and safety for their families. All that men 
needed to learn was how to strike tent, how to care for 
their herds, which was their sole property, how to 
prepare hides for clothing and flesh for food, and how 
to protect themselves from their enemies. Knowledge 
was limited and the child could learn all that he needed 
to know through association with his father. As 
civilization advanced, as knowledge increased, as life 
became more complex and strenuous, as society began 
to be formed and men lived in closer contact with 
one another, added duties were thrust upon parents 
and they could no longer meet the new requirements 
in the education of their children. Hence teachers 
were required, first in the homes to aid the parents in 
the simplest manner in duties which they were no 
longer able to perform, and later in schools set apart 
for the instruction of children. Thus was originated 



2 teaching: its aims and methods 

an occupation which soon demanded the services of 
men of superior intelligence and which has grown into 
a great profession. We may say therefore that teach- 
ing has become both a science and an art. 

I. Teaching is a Science 

The opinions of educators differ as to whether there 
is a science of education. All agree that there are 
many established principles governing educational 
theory and that progress is being made. But some 
think that we have not yet reached the stage in edu- 
cational theory and practice which entitles education 
to be denominated a science. It is recognized that 
there was a time in the history of the world when there 
was no science. No one has created a science. Every 
science is a development resulting from a discovery of 
facts and principles which have been correlated and 
systematized into one general body, often requiring 
centuries of research and involving the activities of 
many men. 

Science Defined. — It may be well clearly to under- 
stand what we mean by science. Webster defines 
science as '^Accumulated and established knowledge, 
which has been systematized and formulated with 
reference to the discovery of general truths or the 
operation of general laws. Knowledge classified and 
made available in work, life, or the search for truth; 
comprehensive, profound, or philosophical knowledge." 
Or in the words of Sir William Hamilton, ''Science is 
a complement of cognitions having in point of form 
the character of logical perfection, and, in point of 



WHAT IS TEACHING? 3 

matter, the character of real truth." In point of form, 
it will not be claimed that education has reached 
logical perfection as is the case with mathematics, 
physics, or botany, or other exact sciences. Like 
psychology, it deals with mental activities, and like 
medicine it has always to suit itself to individual 
characteristics. Like these two sciences it has a body 
of "Accumulated and established knowledge, which 
has been systematized with reference to the discovery 
of general truths or the operation of general laws" 
which can be applied in teaching just as the syste- 
matized knowledge in medicine or psychology can be 
applied. Education can never become an exact science, 
for the discovery and acceptance of a new truth or 
principle opens the door to still other realms of investi- 
gation. The larger the vision, the wider the horizon, 
and there will never be a time when there will be no 
educational problems inviting solution. He who waits 
for a complete solution of all educational questions 
before he accepts a science of education will wait in 
vain. 

Our belief that there is a science of education is 
based on the following reasons: 

I. Because there is sufficient accumulated and estab- 
lished knowledge on this subject. — From the time of 
Socrates till the present time, educational theories have 
been advanced, some of which have been proven fal- 
lacious while many have become established and are 
universally accepted. Of the latter, we may mention 
the duty of the State to provide education for all her 
children and the right to levy pubHc tax therefor; her 
right to extend free education beyond the elementary 



4 teaching: its aims and methods 

school; her insistence on compulsory school attendance 
even in spite of parental objection; the employment of 
duly licensed teachers prepared at public expense; the 
introduction and maintenance of the kindergarten, 
of music, drawing, manual training, domestic science, 
and many other features necessary to meet the condi- 
tions of modern life. These matters affecting the ma- 
terial side of education are settled for all time. More 
strictly scientific and pedagogical questions, such as the 
training of the senses by means of object teaching, 
the doctrine of interest, the meaning of apperception, 
the proper correlation of subjects, the harmonious de- 
velopment of all the human powers, the training of the 
hand and the heart, as well as the head — all these, 
and many other questions, if not fully settled, have had 
light thrown upon them and have reached practically, 
a final acceptance upon a scientific basis. 

It would be impossible to formulate all the accepted 
educational principles that have been evolved. The 
statement of a few of these principles will illustrate 
the point under discussion. Greece taught the emanci- 
pation of the individual, an idea that reached its great- 
est impulse in the teachings of Christ, of whom Karl 
Schmidt says, ^'Christ, the perfect teacher, gave, by 
His example and by His own teaching, the eternal 
principles of pedagogy." 

Plato taught that the aim of education is to bring all 
the powers of man into harmonious cooperation, and 
modern educators are emphasizing this principle. 
Aristotle believed that one must proceed from the 
concrete to the abstract, and Pestalozzi has worked 
out this theory in his scheme of object teaching. 



WHAT IS TEACHING? ^ 

Quintilian held that children should begin early with 
a foreign tongue and all modern thinkers are adopting 
this view. 

Francke not only urged that teachers should be 
trained but also carried out his ideas practically. 
The establishment of many normal schools, training 
classes, teachers' colleges, and other institutions for 
the preparation of teachers, the vast sums of money 
freely contributed by the public for this purpose and 
the growing disposition of school boards to employ 
only professionally trained teachers, prove that this 
idea has won acceptance. 

Charlemagne thought that every child has a right 
to an education and Pestalozzi emphasized the same 
thought. Of him Dr. Harris says, "He is the first 
teacher to announce convincingly the doctrine that 
all people should be educated, that, in fact, education 
is the one good gift to give to all whether rich or 
poor." Every civilized nation is now providing the 
opportunity for every child to secure that inherent right. 

The above statements illustrate that there is ''accu- 
mulated and established knowledge" on this subject, 
and we believe that it is sufficient to entitle education 
to the dignity of a science. Prof. Rein says, "Froebel 
gave the world the kindergarten, while Herbart ele- 
vated education to the dignity of a science.^ 

2. Because of the scientific works on education. — If 
the foregoing argument does not suffice, a second one 
is found in the vast number of scientific and philosoph- 

^ For the statement of many more educational maxims, the reader is 
referred to the summaries following each chapter in my "History of 
Education." 



6 teaching: its aims and methods 

ical works on education. It is hardly conceivable that 
profound thinkers should devote their best thought to 
a discussion of something that does not exist. These 
discussions are found not only in educational books and 
periodicals, but also in popular magazines and current 
literature. Every year there are issued in English 
alone hundreds of books, pamphlets and other writing 
which treat seriously various fields of educational 
activity, while productions on this subject in German 
and French are still more voluminous. James M. 
Greenwood well remarks, "With a pedagogical litera- 
ture that represents hundreds of volumes in EngKsh, 
more than two thousand in French, and more volumi- 
nous still in German, there is hardly a valid excuse why 
anyone who is to teach in a public or private school 
should be ignorant of the existence of this great treasure 
house of educational knowledge." 

3. Because of organizations for the study of educa- 
tion. — Teachers' organizations, which meet periodically 
to discuss educational questions, from national and 
state associations down to the smallest teachers' club, 
furnish evidence that there is a science of education. 
It is true that there are other societies like labor 
unions and mutual benefit associations, which meet 
to discuss matters affecting their interests. But there 
is this vital difference between these organizations and 
those maintained by teachers, namely, their purpose 
is to secure better pay, shorter hours, recognition of 
the union or to provide for the sick, the aged, or the 
incapacitated, while the latter associations discuss 
questions affecting the welfare of the human race by 
means of the work done in the schools. Methods of 



WHAT IS TEACHING? 7 

instruction, suitable courses of study, wholesome dis- 
cipline, educational theories, whatever will interest 
and uplift the pupils, how to prepare them to be most 
useful in life, these, and like questions furnish the chief 
topics of the programs. Rare, indeed, does one find 
in such meetings discussions of salaries, of shorter 
hours, of advancement or other questions affecting 
the selfish interests of the teachers. This work is as 
purely altruistic as that of medical, legal, or theological 
associations, and therefore like these, teaching may 
justly be classed as a profession, based upon scientific 
principles. 

4. Because of the institutions maintained for the scien- 
tific study of education. — There are, in this country 
alone, nearly 400 normal schools devoting their whole 
time to educating teachers, 1200 high schools with 
teachers' training classes, and about 140 universities 
and colleges offering pedagogical courses. In addition 
to these there are many summer schools, training 
classes, and institutes held for the purpose of preparing 
teachers. The maintenance of these institutions in- 
volves a large outlay of money, and whether that 
money is contributed by individual givers or is appro- 
priated from public funds by legislative representatives, 
the fact that it is so freely given is a proof that the 
cause is worthy. It is corroborative proof that men 
believe that there is a science of education and they 
are willing to contribute for the spread of that science 
just as they are willing to support chairs for the teach- 
ing of physics, chemistry, mathematics, or other 
sciences. 

5. Because education has long been recognized as a 



8 teaching: its aims and methods 

science. — It is true that the recognition of education 
as a science has been tardy in this country, the oldest 
normal school having been founded only three-quarters 
of a century ago, and the recognition by higher insti- 
tutions of learning having taken place only within a 
generation. In other countries, however, notably 
Germany and France, education has long been regarded 
as a science, courses have been offered, and degrees 
given on an equality with other sciences. 

As teaching is a science it is worthy of respect and 
consideration the same as other sciences. It is in the 
way of progress and improvement in its own field of 
activity. On the part of teachers, it calls for altruism, 
for scientific investigation and enterprise. It is un- 
selfish. It places teaching in the ranks of professions 
father than trades. It offers substantial hope for the 
future of the human race, for teaching is the greatest 
agency of progress and of the advancement of mankind. 

II. Teaching is an Art 

Not only is teaching a science, it is also an art. 
We shall come closer to the answer of the question, 
^'What is Teaching?" in the consideration of teaching 
as an art. Let us study the method of Jesus, The 
Great Teacher. 

Christ* s Method. — '' And seeing the multitudes, he 
went up into a mountain; and when he was set, his 
disciples came unto him; and he opened his mouth and 
taught them, saying. Blessed are the poor in spirit, for 
theirs is the kingdom of heaven." Thus began the 
most remarkable hour of instruction ever listened to 



WHAT IS TEACHING? g 

by human ears, Christ's Sermon on the Mount. What 
better introduction to a study of "The Art of Teach- 
ing," than a consideration of the method of the Great 
Teacher? First of all. His life and purity of character 
place Him above reproach, and His is an example of 
goodness and unselfish devotion for teachers of all ages. 
He was "without spot or blemish." The most careful 
study of His life by critics, by enemies and friends, by 
philosophers and students, by believers and unbelievers, 
by wise and simple during the past nineteen centuries 
has only sustained and confirmed the conviction that 
He is the greatest of all teachers. Not only the great 
and wise have been blessed by His sublime words, but 
also the simple and unlettered have understood Him 
and been comforted and uplifted. 

What are the characteristics of Christ's method? 
In answering this question we shall find an answer to 
the problem with which we are dealing. These are 
some of the characteristics of His teaching: 

I. It was suited to His hearers. — When He talked 
with Nicodemus, He discussed the profoundest doc- 
trines of the new birth; but when He met the ignorant 
Samaritan woman at Jacob's well. He opened up the 
truth in the simplest and yet most searching manner. 
Among the vineclad hills of Judea, surrounded by wine- 
growers, He spoke the parable of the vineyard. In 
the midst of the farmers and tillers of soil, He began, 
"Behold a sower went forth to sow," or "'The King- 
dom of heaven is like to a grain of mustard seed." No 
one failed to understand His meaning and He is a most 
remarkable example of a teacher suiting his instruction 
to the comprehension and needs of His hearers. 



lo teaching: its aims and methods 

2. It abounded in concrete illustrations. — Thus the 
evil of covetousness is shown by the parable of the 
rich man and his barns. Charity and forbearance are 
illustrated by the parable of the creditor and his two 
debtors. Mercy and generosity are taught in the 
story of the Good Samaritan. Forgiveness, in the 
wonderful parable of the Prodigal Son. Prudence, in 
the parable of the man building a tower, or the King 
going to war. Solicitude for the lost, in the story of 
the Ninety and Nine. Future rewards, in the account 
of the rich man and Lazarus. Justice in the parable 
of the Unjust Steward. All through His ministry he 
utilized the circumstances and the common events of 
the life around Him to illustrate and emphasize the 
lessons he wished to teach. 

Following this example the teacher of young children 
must make abundant use of concrete illustrations and 
there is no material more suggestive than that found 
in the words and works of Christ. Pestalozzi caught 
the spirit of the Master and gave to the world the idea 
of object teaching, the use of concrete material. In 
this, as well as in the motive and zeal which actuated 
his whole life, the Swiss reformer followed in the foot- 
steps of Him who taught as no one else ever taught 
and concerning whom the Roman officers said, ''Never 
man spake like this man." 

3. It drew from nature and from environment. — We 
hear a great deal in these days of ''Nature Study," 
of the use of environment, of making the child ac- 
quainted with the actual things of life. We turn to 
Rousseau for a remarkable exposition in his Emile 
of nature's way of doing. Far richer and truer to 



WHAT IS TEACHING? II 

nature is the example and practice of Jesus. He loved 
to wander among the hills of Galilee and over the 
plains of Judea followed by His disciples, seizing upon 
the changing scenes to draw lessons of deepest spiritual 
import. The Mystery of the Kingdom of God is 
illustrated by the parable of the grain of Mustard 
Seed. What better method of inspiring confidence in 
God's providence than this appeal to nature? ''Behold 
the fowls of the air! for they sow not, neither do they 
reap, nor gather into barns; and yet your heavenly 
Father feedeth them. Are ye not much better than 
they?" ''Why take ye thought for raiment? Con- 
sider the lilies of the field, how they grow; they toil 
not, neither do they spin; and yet I say unto you, 
that even Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed 
like one of these." What stronger illustration of genu- 
ineness is to be found than in the parable of the good 
and the corrupt tree? "For a good tree bringeth 
forth not evil fruit; neither doth a corrupt tree bring 
forth good fruit. For every tree is known by his own 
fruit. For of thorns men do not gather figs, nor of a 
bramble bush gather they grapes. A good man out of 
the good treasure of his heart bringeth forth that 
which is good; and an evil man out of the evil treasure 
of his heart bringeth forth that which is evil; for out 
of the abundance of the heart his mouth speaketh." 
What a remarkable appeal to the shepherds and 
husbandmen is His parable of the lost sheep and how 
fully it must have reached their comprehension. 
"What man of you, having a hundred sheep, if he 
lose one of them, doth not leave the ninety and nine 
in the wilderness and go after that which is lost, until 



12 teaching: its aims and methods 

he find it? And when he hath found it, he layeth it 
on his shoulders, rejoicing, and when he cometh home, 
he calleth together his friends and neighbours, saying 
unto them. Rejoice with me; for I have found my sheep 
which was lost. I say unto you, that likewise joy 
shall be in heaven over one sinner that repenteth, 
more than over ninety and nine just persons, which 
need no repentance." Christ never failed to employ 
nature to illustrate his sublime truths, thus emphasiz- 
ing and fastening the lessons upon His hearers. No 
teacher can afford to ignore the New Testament in 
his study of educational method. 

4. // was simple and yet logical. — The language that 
Jesus used was so simple that the ignorant and lowly 
could follow His teaching, and even little children 
were drawn to Him by the simpHcity and fitness of 
His words. Whether it was a parable or a story, a 
warning or a reprimand, a tender appeal or an indig- 
nant reproof, a sermon or a prayer, an argument with 
the Scribes and the Pharisees, a comforting word to the 
sisters of Bethany, or a familiar talk with His disciples, 
Jesus expressed Himself with clearness and simplicity 
so that all understood His gracious words and grasped 
His meaning; and yet, there was a logic and complete- 
ness in His utterances that impressed even the wise and 
learned. We read that when His parents found Him 
in the temple at twelve years of age, sitting in the 
midst of the doctors, both hearing them and asking 
them questions, it was declared, that "All who heard him 
were astonished at his understanding and answers." 
We thus find a remarkable illustration of the necessity 
of simple and yet logical presentation of matter. 



WHAT IS TEACHING? 13 

5. // exalted the truth. — Christ was the essence of 
truth, declaring unto Thomas, ^'I am the way, the 
truth, and the life." By His exaltation of truth and 
by His interpretation of it, Jesus has transformed the 
world, elevated mankind, fostered peace and brotherly 
love, and laid the foundations of human progress for 
all time. So, too, upon the teacher of today is laid 
the duty of promulgating truth, for the teacher is the 
^'high priest of the future," and as he thinks, as he 
teaches, as he molds, as he leads, so will the future 
men and women think, and act, and live. 

6. // was authoritative. — *'And they were astonished 
at his doctrine; for He taught them as one that had 
authority, and not as the Scribes." There was no un- 
certainty in the mind of Christ in anything that He 
taught. He was always master of His theme and there- 
fore was able to overthrow the lawyers, and Scribes, 
and Sadducees who sought to entrap Him by covert 
questions and sophistical reasoning. On the other 
hand, we have seen that He presented the truths so 
simply that the unlettered could comprehend. There 
can be no good teaching unless the teacher has so 
thoroughly mastered his subject as to be able to speak 
with confidence and authority. Men go to the ends 
of the earth to sit at the feet of a teacher who has won 
the right to be called an authority in some particular 
field. 

7. It was sympathetic. — Christ came very close to 
those who followed Him as ''He went about doing 
good." He loved little children and drew them to 
Him. He held Himself aloof from no one. He ate 
with publicans and sinners, tarried at the home of 



14 TEAriTINO: ITS AIMS AND METHODS 

Zacchaeus the rich usurer, and gave new life and hope 
to the abandoned Magdalene. His was the purest 
altruism for lie gave Himself for others, always seek- 
ing to bless and save the lost and the hopeless. What 
an example for those who would consecrate their lives 
to the great work of teaching! 

I have thus sought to present reverently and with 
a full sense of the greatness of the task, some of the 
characteristics of the method and to awaken something 
of the spirit of the Great Teacher as the best intro- 
duction to a study of the question at the head of this 
chapter, ''What is Teaching?" Let those who wish 
to perfect themselves in the art of teaching not fail 
to study the life and work of Christ. May they catch 
(lie spirit that actuated Him. There is no better 
preparation for this noble work. 

ni. Definition of Teaching 

Teaching may be defined as the process of canceling 
the difference in knowledge between two persons. — ^Let us 
turn to a more specific study of this defmition. Some 
time ago while riding on a train I sat with a man who 
had in his possession a beautiful cane made of glass. 
He was a glass blower and had made the cane himself. 
He described the process by which he made the cane; 
in a word, he was my teacher. In so far as I grasped 
his meaning, the original difference between us on this 
subject was canceled. Of course, it would have been 
necessary for him to take me to a glass factory, put 
tools into my hands and train me in their use, show 
me the various processes and help me to acquire skill 



WHAT IS TEACHING? 



IS 



in manipulating them, instruct me in the intricacies 
of glass-making in order wholly to cancel the difference 
between us so that I could make as fine a cane as he 
could. 

I. Knowledge the first essential. — The teacher stands 
before his class possessing knowledge that the pupils 
do not possess. His work is to obliterate as much of 
the difference as possible, and this act is teaching. It 
is evident, then, that the first essential in the teacher's 
equipment is knowledge. The school trustee who hires 
his neighbor's daughter who has only a grammar school 
training on the ground that ''She knows enough to 
teach those little children in the district school," fails 
to understand a vital truth, namely, that one who has 
but little to give can give but little, and therefore the 
children in such case have but little to expect. There is 
not much difference to cancel. 

Recognizing the fundamental necessity of knowledge 
in the equipment of the teacher, normal schools are 
insisting upon the full preparation of the high school 
as a condition of admission and as a prerequisite to 
professional training. Examining boards everywhere 
arc strengthening the academic requirements of candi- 
dates for license to teach. There must be mastery 
of subject matter, there must be broad culture and a 
sound basis of learning if one is to secure abiding and 
substantial success as a teacher. Skill in the manipu- 
lation of classes, genius in the technique of teaching, 
mastery in the art of interesting pupils, facility in 
the adaptation of methods are all very essential in 
teaching, but they can never be substitutes for knowl- 
edge. Let me illustrate this point by a concrete 



t6 teaching: its aims and methods 

example. As principal of a school I obtained gradu- 
ates from two normal schools, one of which laid great 
stress upon methods, and the other laid stress upon 
knowledge as the foundation of the teacher's equip- 
ment. The former school held that the most im- 
portant thing is to make the teacher familiar with the 
school room arts; the latter held that if you give her 
a sound foundation in knowledge and in the science of 
teaching, the art side would soon take care of itself. 
The first teacher took hold of her work Hke a veteran. 
She knew how to perform her duties and had her 
pupils well in hand. The other teacher began with 
indifferent success, so much so, that the board of edu- 
cation feared that we had made a mistake. But it 
was not long before she found herself and every year 
added to her strength and growth. The former teacher 
showed no progress, she was as good a teacher the first 
year as she ever was. The one teacher's equipment 
was based upon immediate and superficial results; 
the other upon lasting foundations, those of a thorough 
knowledge of the subjects to be taught. Said the 
principal of a pubHc school to me: ''The teachers that 
come to me from the training school always start 
better than those from the normal school because they 
are familiar with our system and have had more prac- 
tice work; but those from the normal school soon 
find themselves, and always turn out to be my best 
teachers." 

It is not noble buildings, or great libraries, or fine 
surroundings, or the large student body that make a 
university great; but it is the men of large learning, the 
men who have sounded the depths of knowledge, the 



WHAT IS TEACHING? 



17 



men who have something to give that make the uni- 
versity. It is these teachers that draw students to an 
institution. They possess knowledge that others want 
to acquire and students will make great sacrifices in 
order to come under the spell of those who possess it. 
There is nothing in the teacher's preparation that can 
compensate for the lack of knowledge. The commission 
of experts authorized by the legislature of Vermont to 
investigate the school system of that state, very wisely 
says that in teachers, ''Knowledge of the subject- 
matter must have become so comprehensive and 
automatic that the conscious purpose to instruct 
may always be uppermost and unembarrassed." 

2. Power to impart an essential. — While the first 
essential is knowledge of subject matter, it is recognized 
that there must be power to impart knowledge. 
Hence the necessity of professional schools to teach 
the science and art of teaching. There is little more 
reason for a young man who has completed the ordi- 
nary academic course in college to begin teaching 
without special preparation than there is for him to 
begin the practice of medicine without special prepara- 
tion. For this reason most of our colleges offer 
pedagogical courses for students who expect to teach. 
This certainly is wise, for between twenty-five and 
thirty per cent of those who graduate from college 
enter teaching — a larger percentage than any other 
profession secures. The analogy between teaching 
and medicine is not wholly fair, because in the former 
one may employ knowledge and methods in the same 
way they have been employed in his education, while 
in the latter the field is entirely new. But the teacher 



1 8 teaching: its aims and methods 

with no pedagogical preparation must learn to teach 
at the expense of his pupils, and this is a very expen- 
sive way to learn — expensive for the pupils and for 
the community. Therefore boards of education are 
expecting more and more that a college graduate shall 
supplement his academic course with a professional 
course in teaching before he seeks employment. To 
meet this demand there have grown up teachers' 
colleges and special courses in normal schools and 
summer schools, and these institutions are rapidly 
increasing as the requirement becomes more imperative. 

3. Natural qualifications for teaching. — In the olden 
time stress was laid upon the teacher being possessed of 
natural ability in managing children and in imparting 
knowledge. Most persons who went through the 
earlier schools can recall such a teacher whom they 
remember with gratitude and affection. Less stress 
is now laid upon this idea than in former times, 
because it is recognized that through a study of the 
psychology of teaching, through an understanding of 
fundamental principles, and through practice in the 
art of teaching one can acquire power in this field, 
as power in the field of medicine, law, or theology can 
be acquired; and there are the same reasons for special 
preparation in teaching as there are for special prepa- 
ration in the other professions. Although the ''born'* 
teacher was often a person whose chief gift was the 
ability to keep order — always a primary essential, 
but doubly so in the old time school — yet some of 
them possessed extraordinary skill in imparting knowl- 
edge. 

Whether it is natural or acquired, the teacher must 



WHAT IS TEACHING? 1 9 

possess the power to impart knowledge, must know 
how to cancel the difference in knowledge between 
himself and his pupils. How shall this difference be 
canceled? How shall teacher and pupil be brought 
together? The answer is — by teaching. It is obvious 
that the first essential in this process is to make the 
child eager to know. No successful teaching can take 
place v/ithout this. The material selected and the 
method of presentation must be suited to the capacity 
of the child. Interest cannot be sustained unless these 
conditions obtain. Ingenious technique on the part of 
the teacher will not sufffce. Hence, in the real sense, 
method embraces not only the act of imparting but 
also the content — suitable material. 

4. Manner of imparting. — If John Locke's teaching, 
that the mind is a tabula rasa, a ''blank tablet," on 
which impressions are to be made as on the film of a 
camera is true, the principal work of teaching is to 
impart; and the more one can throw on the "blank 
tablet," the greater the amount of instruction; but 
this theory has long been an exploded one. The mind 
is self-active and the great work of the teacher is to 
arouse self-activity in the child, a principle upon 
which Froebel lays great stress. The teacher may be 
ever so efffcient in imparting knowledge, but if the 
pupil does not respond, if he is not stimulated to think 
and act for himself, there is no real teaching. There 
must be mutual and sympathetic action between the 
two or there will be no cancelation of the difference in 
knowledge. 

5. The German m.ethod. — The method of instruction 
in the German Volksschule is that of imparting. The 



20 teaching: its aims and methods 

teacher relates the historical event, or the lesson in 
geography, or whatever is to be taught, and then 
questions the pupils concerning the facts given. He 
does this with that wonderful skill and forcefulness 
which has made the German schoolmaster famous. 
No preparation on the part of the pupils is required — 
in many subjects they are not provided with text-books. 
It has been estimated that the total cost of text-books 
for the eight years' course is not more than one dollar. 
Home work consists in performing tasks that follow 
the instruction rather than in doing work that precedes 
it as is our American custom. The German pupil 
learns through the instruction, and his self-activity is 
certainly aroused. President Butler thinks that the 
German child of fourteen is at least two years in 
advance of the American child of the same age in the 
matter of knowledge. But has he also the self-reliance, 
the power of initiative, the desire for further progress 
in learning that the American child has? Does not 
the method of instruction, the imparting method in 
which his teacher is almost his sole means of gaining 
knowledge, tend to destroy his power of initiative and 
his self-reliance and fail to provide him with the power 
of progressing and the desire to do so after leaving 
school? Many thoughtful German educators beheve 
that their schools are defective in these very important 
respects and the authorities are estabHshing many 
supplementary schools for the purpose of encouraging 
further study after the child leaves the common school. 
It seems to me that teaching, in the best sense, stimu- 
lates the above quaHties, namely, the power of ini- 
tiative, self-reliance, and the desire for further progress, 



WHAT IS TEACHING? 21 

and that these qualities should be inculcated even in 
the elementary school which furnishes all the schooling 
that ninety per cent of the children ever get. 

I shall discuss methods of teaching in a later chapter 
in which the details will be more fully treated. In 
conclusion, the teacher must first of all possess knowl- 
edge; and secondly, he must have the power to im- 
part it. His teaching is a success when, in part at least, 
he has canceled the difference in knowledge that ex- 
isted between him and his pupils, and when through 
the stimulation of their self-activity he has succeeded 
in creating a desire for further progress in learning, 
and has taught them how to secure it. In reaching 
these results, doubtless his own personality, his skill 
in the art of teaching, his power of awakening enthu- 
siasm, and his genius in interesting the child's capacities 
and needs will play an important part. 



CHAPTER II 

MOTIVES FOR BECOMING A TEACHER 

The Need of Teachers. — Every year from 80,000 to 
100,000 young people in this country enter upon the 
work of teaching. They come from the farm and 
the city, from the college and the normal school, but 
the great body of them still come from the elementary 
school where their training has necessarily been very 
limited with little reference to any professional calHng. 
It is an encouraging sign, however, that college gradu- 
ates are entering more and more upon this work. 
Formerly the largest percentage of college graduates 
entered the ministry or the law, but now teaching is 
drawing a larger percentage from the colleges than any 
other profession is drawing — the latest statistics showing 
that more than a quarter of those who go to college be- 
come teachers. The normal schools, public and private, 
furnish some eighteen thousand graduates, while the 
normal departments of universities, colleges, and high 
schools contribute about four thousand more, making 
approximately one-fourth of the nearly one hundred 
thousand teachers needed every year. 

Commissioner Claxton says, "The total number of 
graduates (from normal schools), 18,278, was large 
enough to supply less than 25 per cent of the demand 
for new teachers in the elementary schools of the coun- 
try. If all the graduates had begun teaching in the fall 



MOTIVES FOR BECOMING A TEACHER 23 

after their graduation, there would still have been 60,000 
vacancies or more to be filled by young teachers who 
had not had the education and professional training 
represented by graduation from the normal school. 
This lack of preparation of teachers is one of the great- 
est evils of our school system. In no other country 
that pretends to provide an opportunity for universal 
education is the condition in this respect so bad as 
in the United States. This condition must be remedied 
or the schools must continue to be much less efficient 
than they should be. The state or country which 
assumes the responsibility of educating children at 
public expense and in schools under public control, 
must assume the corresponding responsibility of pre- 
paring at public expense a sufficient number of teach- 
ers, and must refuse to license persons not having 
sufficient native ability, education, and training to 
use to good advantage the time and money of the 
children. It is unwise and unjust to give in one school 
supported by the taxes of the people and attended by 
children that may be prepared for life, for making a 
living, and for the duties and responsibilities of citizen- 
ship, a well-educated and well-trained teacher, and to 
give at the same time to another school supported by 
the taxes of the people and attended by children that 
may be prepared for the duties and responsibilities 
of citizenship, a teacher without education, training, 
or experience."^ 

The Untrained Teacher. — The problem of the un- 
trained teacher is the most stupendous problem that 
confronts American education today. It is chiefly to 

^ United States Commissioner's Report for 1912, p. xviii. 



24 teaching: its aims and methods 

reach, inspire, guide, and aid the great body of young 
people who belong to this class, and who most of all 
need help, that this book is written. Entering upon 
the work with high ambition and lofty ideals, never- 
theless, without professional training and experience, 
they grope their way in ignorance of many things that 
they might learn and make mistakes that they might 
easily escape. All this is done at the expense of the 
children. Whoever helps the teacher, becomes a bene- 
factor of the more than twenty million children 
thronging the public schools of America. And this 
brings me to the topic which this chapter starts out to 
discuss. 

Motives. — Of all those who contemplate entering 
upon teaching, whether it be those who have spent time 
and money in obtaining a suitable preparation, or those 
who have had no preparation, I want to ask the 
question, ''What are your motives?" No one should 
undertake this great work without carefully considering 
its importance, its opportunities, and its responsibilities; 
for to be a teacher of the young is one of the greatest 
privileges and opportunities that a human being can 
enjoy. There is no nobler calling among the occupa- 
tions of men. It opens to the young man or woman of 
ability, ambition, and zeal such a field for good as no 
other calling offers. Even the minister of God's Word 
does not have the opportunities for doing good that 
the school teacher does, for the latter deals with im- 
pressionable and plastic minds and hearts which are 
committed to his care by personal contact for several 
hours a day and possibly for a number of years. 
Hence the importance of devoted, consistent, and con- 



MOTIVES FOR BECOMING A TEACHER 25 

secrated persons in this work. And this is the reason 
why it becomes so important to consider the motives 
for entering this field of labor. The choosing of one's 
life work should call for serious consideration, as it is 
a crisis in any young person's life. During school life, 
whether it be in the elementary or high school, in 
college, university, or other school, the individual is 
under tutelage, is guided by older and wiser persons. 
He has been care free and the problems of life have 
not rested heavily upon him. But now the time for 
the choice of a calling has arrived, responsibilities 
must be assumed, and if the teaching profession is 
selected, he must not forget that the future of many 
others will be largely determined by the measure of his 
wisdom and faithfulness. For it is no light matter to 
become a teacher of youth. Therefore we consider the 
various motives which actuate in the making of a 
choice. 

I. The earning of a livelihood. — No doubt many a 
young man enters teaching with no higher motive than 
to make a living. Now to support one's self by honor- 
able enterprise is certainly worthy, and I find no fault 
with the teacher who seeks to improve his condition 
financially. "The laborer is worthy of his hire" in 
this as in other occupations. But this is not a sufiicient 
motive. At a teacher's institute the question was 
asked as to the motives for becoming a teacher. The 
following are some of the replies. "Because I thought 
it an easy job. Nothing to do but sit in a chair for 
five or six hours and read questions out of a book. 
All Saturdays free and a three months' vacation in 
summer.'* "I preferred it to being a hired girl.'* 



26 teaching: its aims and methods 

"The pay is better than work on a farm and the work 
easier." To boys brought up on a farm where wages 
are from fifteen to twenty-five dollars a month and 
where twelve to sixteen hours a day of labor are ex- 
pected, a salary of six or seven hundred dollars a year 
where only six hours a day are required, with many 
vacations, is very alluring. Such boys are apt to 
measure the value of money by the standards of 
country life to which they are accustomed, not realizing 
the thousand and one expenses for clothing, board, 
amusement, etc., incident to town life and the style 
of living that the teacher must maintain, which are 
quite unknown to the simple life of the farm. Nor 
do they take into account that six hours a day by no 
means represents the time that the faithful and suc- 
cessful teacher must devote to his profession. They 
see only the two extremes, hard work, long hours, 
small pay, and narrow life on the one hand, and ease, 
short hours, large pay, good clothing, respectability, 
honor, and a chance to mingle in the great activities 
of the world, on the other hand. If they would take 
the trouble to examine the facts, they would find that 
the farmer really has more ease, more independence, 
and a better living, and is far more likely to make a 
fortune. Rich school teachers are exceedingly rare, 
and very few have acquired a competency from the 
salaries paid them. 

I do not present these facts for the sake of discour- 
aging farm boys from selecting teaching as their life 
work. Indeed, many of the great educators of our 
country today began life amid the hardships and re- 
sponsibilities of the farm. Such an experience fur- 



MOTIVES FOR BECOMING A TEACHER 27 

nishes an excellent foundation for the virility, the 
faithfulness, the devotion to duty, the sympathy for 
those struggling to free themselves from the bonds of 
ignorance, which the schoolroom so strongly invites. 
The profession of teaching, fortunately, has always 
appealed to those brought up amid the simple life 
of the rural community. At a recent meeting of the 
educational leaders of a great state — the superin- 
tendents, inspectors, principals, and normal school 
professors — it was found that out of fifty men present, 
forty-nine had been raised in the country, most of them 
on the farm. These men, while undoubtedly first at- 
tracted to teaching by the apparent opportunities to 
improve their condition as above stated, have found 
the work congenial and inspiring, and they have meas- 
ured up to its requirements in the noblest manner. 
Their sturdy frames, their good habits, their self- 
reliance, their industry, their virility, their training in 
meeting and carrying responsibility, all these things, 
gained under the primitive conditions of farm life, 
have furnished a magnificent capital upon which to 
draw all their lives, and these possessions have been a 
large element in their success. So the teaching pro- 
fession will ever invite this class of young men, not as 
a means of emolument, but as a means of far greater 
usefulness and more real success than financial enter- 
prise can offer. 

So, too, many a girl, having obtained an education 
somewhat beyond that of most girls in the neighbor- 
hood, casts about for something to do. It is seldom 
that she will go out to service. While we have as 
yet no class distinctions in this country, unfortunately, 



28 teaching: its aims and methods 

there is a decided tendency among those who have 
been to high school to look upon manual labor as de- 
grading to them. Such, surely, ought not to be the 
case, and our schools are lax in their duty to the rising 
generation by failing to meet this tendency. Right 
education will prepare for Hfe whatever its duties may 
be and it will sanctify and ennoble honest labor of 
all kinds so that the injunction of the Bible, ''Whatso- 
ever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might," 
will be carried out in letter and spirit. The greatest 
of all Teachers devoted a large part of His life to labor 
with His hands at the carpenter's bench, thus forever 
glorifying and ennobling honest toil. Oh, that we 
could implant in the Hves of the young committed to 
our care something of His noble spirit and motive! 
Few educated girls are willing to learn the arts of do- 
mestic life so important to the perpetuity and the 
happiness of the home. Nothing so contributes to the 
comfort and happiness of the home as the ability 
on the part of its presiding genius intelligently to direct 
every feature of household activity. Every German 
girl, no matter what her station in life, is trained most 
thoroughly in all these duties, and for this reason she 
is prepared to be the companion and helpmate of her 
husband. For, after all, the noblest place for woman 
is the home with its sacred duties of wifehood and 
motherhood. 

But what has all this to do with girls who choose 
teaching as their life work? It is a statement of a 
well-known fact to say that comparatively few girls 
who enter the field of teaching expect to make this a 
permanent occupation. The fact that such large 



MOTIVES FOR BECOMING A TEACHER 29 

numbers of them marry after a few years in the school- 
room is proof of the statement. While it is admitted 
that this is bad for the schools in that it necessitates 
the constant introduction of new and inexperienced 
teachers, it is a good thing for society at large because 
it adds to the number of educated and intelligent 
wives and mothers. If the state, therefore, has been 
at the expense of preparing girls for teaching it is a 
good investment even though many of them teach for 
only a few years. 

Many New Teachers. — Four-fifths of the teachers of 
this country are women and the proportion is ever 
growing higher. Inasmuch as nearly one-fifth of our 
teachers withdraw from the work each year, the prob- 
lem of preparing a sufficient number of teachers is 
very hard to solve. The large preponderance of women 
teachers is the chief cause of this condition of things. 
Men enter the work for life and remain in it, while 
women do not usually enter it for life and often do 
not remain in it. Most of the withdrawals are from 
the ranks of the women. So while girls often teach 
as a temporary makeshift, and we cannot condemn 
the motive, it is not the highest motive. I gladly 
admit too, that in many cases a higher motive is at- 
tained when they get settled in teaching and they 
come to love the work as a wonderful opportunity to 
do good. They continue to teach because they love 
it, and many would not change their occupation for 
anything that the world has to offer. As positions 
become permanent, as salaries become more enticing, 
as teachers are treated with greater respect, more and 
more women are choosing teaching as their life work. 



30 teaching: its aims and methods 

It may not be amiss to remark that there is a 
hint in the above discussion as to why, on the whole, 
the salaries of men will always be higher than those 
of women. It is not a question of efficiency or of suc- 
cess, for certainly women are the equals of men in 
both of these respects; nor am I considering whether 
or not at a certain period of a child's life women are 
superior as teachers, and at another period men are 
more effective; but it is a question of business expedi- 
ency and obedience to the law of supply and demand. 
A larger proportion of men than of women select 
teaching as their Hfe work, their average term of service 
is longer, and therefore men on the whole will always 
command higher pay. When women prepare them- 
selves as well, prove as efficient, and continue as long 
in the work as men, the question of sex ought not to 
enter into the fixing of salary. 

2. The desire for self-improvement. — This is a sec- 
ond motive that actuates many young persons to 
choose teaching. They are filled with ambition to 
improve themselves, a most worthy ambition that 
surely should be encouraged. And teaching certainly 
offers rare opportunity for the attainment of such 
ambition. Nothing so thoroughly clarifies one's ideas 
of a subject as to be obliged so to present it to the 
minds of children that they can fully comprehend it. 
The earnest and conscientious teacher will not be satis- 
fied to present a truth superficially. Therefore he 
must have more than a superficial knowledge, he 
must thoroughly master it. In presenting it to his 
pupils by various methods, with inexhaustible patience, 
and by many repetitions, in order that they may surely 



MOTIVES FOR BECOMING A TEACHER 3 1 

comprehend and fix the lesson taught, it unfolds itself 
to the mind of the teacher with added force day by 
day. What teacher has not experienced a wonderful 
revelation of truth to his own soul while he has been 
eagerly seeking to clarify it to suit the vision of his 
pupils? The teacher's calHng furnishes unsurpassed 
opportunities for self-improvement. In stimulating the 
intellectual growth of children there is correspond- 
ing, perhaps even greater, intellectual growth of the 
teacher. Nor is this growth limited merely to the 
intellectual. What superintendent has not witnessed 
the evolution of the frivolous and irresponsible young 
beginner into the thoughtful and conscientious teacher, 
who has been led by contact with innocent and trust- 
ing childhood to measure up to her great responsibiHty 
for the moral and spiritual, as well as intellectual wel- 
fare of the young lives committed to her guidance? 
An interest in these sides of the lives of her charges 
reacts upon her life and makes her better. Indeed, 
the teacher who does not grow even faster than her 
pupils grow, who does not become gentler and more 
sympathetic as the years roll around, has missed her 
calling and should seek some other field. Contact 
with intellectual life stimulates thought and zeal for 
higher attainments, association with the pure and holy 
inspires to better living and awakens desire for personal 
righteousness, and so to live in daily contact with pure 
and innocent children cannot fail to make one better. 
For children are the ''Gift of God," and they reflect 
His love and likeness unless they have been spoiled 
by evil association. Most children have not been so 
spoiled, they are good, and pure, and lovely. To ap- 



32 teaching: its aims and methods 

predate this thought one has only to study the splendid 
optimism of Judge Lindsay in his dealings with the 
toughest boys of Denver. 

Every great educator in history began teaching with 
comparatively small equipment in general knowledge 
and in pedagogical skill. But every one of them im- 
proved himself while he improved his pupils, grew 
into a far wider horizon while he extended the horizon 
of those he taught. In the largest degree, perhaps 
even more in this than in other callings, ''Giving doth 
not impoverish" but enricheth in this moral and 
intellectual work of the teacher. I think that this 
explains why lapses from moral life are less frequent 
in the teacher's profession than in any other. 

The young person who becomes a teacher for the 
sake of improving himself, does so from a worthy 
motive, provided this is not a mere stepping-stone to 
some other calling. And in teaching he will find the 
best of opportunities for the fulfillment of the ambition 
to make the most of one's capacities. 

3. The Patriotic Motive. — Love of country is a 
natural and commendable impulse in every human 
heart. Many think that it finds expression only in 
answering the call to arms when the nation's life is in 
peril. In the late Spanish war many young men, 
inspired by enthusiastic patriotism, enlisted to serve 
their country. In 1861, Lincoln's call for volunteers 
was answered by hundreds of thousands of men ready 
and willing to give their life-blood for the preservation 
of the Union. Even more prompt was the response 
to Lincoln's call in 1863 when Lee invaded Pennsyl- 
vania. Forty thousand veterans, of both the blue 



MOTIVES FOR BECOMING A TEACHER 33 

and grey, have been the nation's guests on the im- 
mortal field of Gettysburg where fifty years ago in 
fierce conflict they sought each other's destruction. 
At this semi-centennial celebration they sang their old 
war songs, shouted their battle cries, waved their 
tattered battle flags — the stars and bars minghng 
with the stars and stripes — told over again the camp- 
fire stories of heroic deeds, marched again to fife and 
drum with feeble and halting step, reacted again 
Pickett's awful charge and the stubborn resistance at 
'^ Bloody Angle," listened to patriotic speeches — sad 
remnants of the mighty armies who half a century 
ago on that field decided the fate of the Republic. 
All bitterness had disappeared forever, and the soldiers 
of north and south joined with equal heartiness in 
singing, '''Way down South in Dixie," ''Three cheers 
for the red, white and blue," and "We're tenting again 
on the old camp ground." Nothing in a generation 
has so stirred the patriotic fervor of the land as this 
great reunion at Gettysburg in July, 1913, at this half- 
century anniversary. 

But the opportunity to respond to the call to arms, 
fortunately, does not come in this land of ours to a whole 
generation of men. Hence this way of showing patriot- 
ism can never make its appeal to them. Shall they 
therefore be any less patriotic, and is there no other 
way of proving one's love of country? In a country 
like ours where the people rule, the call for true 
patriotism is constant and imperative. For if the 
people are not patriotic under a free government 
that government will soon cease to be. Men are 
called upon often at great personal sacrifice to serve 



34 teaching: its aims and methods 

their country in public office, while the great masses 
must exercise the right of franchise in the choice of 
proper men to serve them in national and local affairs. 
There is no safety for our institutions unless this choice 
is made, not from narrow partisan motives, not for sel- 
fish purposes, but with a sincere and intelligent concep- 
tion of the duties and responsibilities of a free people. 

Vast hordes of people come to this country with no 
knowledge of our institutions. They must be taught 
the economy of our governmental system. They 
must be instructed in our laws. They must not only 
assimilate our language and become acquainted with 
our customs, but they must also grasp the spirit of 
our manner of ruling. Accustomed to strong, perhaps 
despotic government, it is hard for them to under- 
stand that liberty does not mean license, that freedom 
adds to personal responsibility. 

Nor do they alone need training for citizenship. 
Young America must also be taught that patriotism 
means more than readiness to spring to arms in the 
hour of national danger, which, as we have seen, 
seldom comes; they must know that patriotism makes 
its greatest demands in times of peace when the nation 
is not aroused by appeals to sustain our country's 
honor against an outward foe; nor even in the midst 
of an exciting political campaign when orators and 
newspapers seek to win men to their party beliefs. 
He is most patriotic who is obedient to law, who 
does his duty, not only at the polls, but in every activ- 
ity of life, and who stands ready unselfishly to serve 
his country in peace or war whenever the call comes. 

Obviously the great work of implanting these high 



MOTIVES FOR BECOMING A TEACHER 35 

ideals rests largely with the public school. It alone 
reaches the whole mass of the people, it alone can shape 
the future of the nation. The teacher is the **High 
priest of the future," and as he thinks, as he acts, as 
he teaches, so will the men and women of the future 
think, and act, and live. Hence the teacher must be 
a patriot. The German government, recognizing the 
great importance of this truth, requires every teacher, 
upon induction into office, to take an oath of allegiance. 
We do not advocate this, nevertheless, the teacher 
must have a high conception of duty towards his 
country and must appreciate his opportunity to serve 
it. To enter upon teaching for the sake of serving 
his country by teaching children real patriotism is a 
most noble motive for any young man. Not on the 
battlefield, not in the halls of legislation, not on the 
judge's bench, not in the arena of diplomacy, how- 
ever noble each of these may be, but in the school- 
room he serves by shaping the lives of the embryo 
men and women and inspiring them with intelligent 
and consecrated love of country. After Prussia had 
been crushed by Napoleon in 1806 and lay bleeding 
under his awful tyranny, it was the schools and the 
universities that aroused the people and prepared them 
to throw off the yoke at the battle of Leipsic in 1813. 
''The schoolmaster has won our victories," said Von 
Moltke, after Germany had overwhelmed France in 
187 1. I know of no higher opportunity for a young 
man who is enthusiastic for his country than that 
which teaching offers. The invitation to such is loud 
and pressing, and in no field of endeavor is there 
greater opportunity to satisfy the loftiest ambition. 



36 teaching: its aims and methods 

4. The Altruistic Motive. — What has already been 
said surely calls for altruism. I shall however, present 
the altruistic motive in a broader sense — the desire 
to be of service to one's fellowman. During the 
adolescent period, when most young people begin to 
think of their life work, there springs up an overwhelm- 
ing desire to be of use to mankind. It is true, un- 
fortunately, that many lose sight of this impulse later 
in life and never carry it out; but there is, neverthe- 
less, such a time when the young have large ambitions, 
when they look forward to doing great things in the 
world. Nor is this ambition by any means entirely 
selfish. Doubtless environment has a great influence 
in shaping their ideals. Children brought up in good 
homes, surrounded by an atmosphere of purity and 
under good example, will naturally be more likely to 
choose the right attitude. But all children possess 
the altruistic spirit in some measure and this fact 
should not be lost sight of in their education. It is 
the essence of unselfishness. Teaching offers, in a 
rare degree, opportunities for the satisfaction of this 
innate desire. It places one in the way of leading 
them to be virtuous, of fitting them to be successful 
in life, of forming their character, of guiding them 
into the realm of the spiritual, and of leading young 
people into the larger life, of preparing them for 
good citizenship. Many a man has been saved to a 
useful life by the elevating influence of the school 
and its consecrated teacher. No occupation calls for a 
greater spirit of altruism than teaching. 

I think that the altruistic motive to become a teacher 
is much the same as that which should lead a young 



MOTIVES FOR BECOMING A TEACHER 37 

man to consecrate himself to the Christian ministry. 
The teacher's calling demands the same self-sacrifice, 
the same devotion, the same altruism, and offers op- 
portunities to be of service similar to those of the min- 
ister's calling. And in every one of these things the 
opportunity to serve his fellowmen is fully as great 
for the teacher as for the clergyman. 

I would have every young man or woman who con- 
templates entering upon this work to weigh well their 
motives; and if the motives are ignoble, if they are 
selfish, if they consider this as a mere makeshift or 
stepping-stone to some other work, I urge them not 
to enter this field. There are plenty of other openings 
for young men whose ambitions are in a different 
direction, and for young women too, where they can 
be of service to the world and satisfy whatever am- 
bitions they may have. And also if there are some 
already in the harness who read these pages, and who 
upon careful analysis, find that they do not measure 
up to the standards outlined, and who have no ex- 
pectation of measuring up to them, to such let me say 
self-respect and a regard for the fitness of things de- 
mands that they withdraw at the earliest possible 
moment. 

With the loftiest of motives would I summon young 
men and young women of finest abilities and noblest 
character to this great work. If they have lower mo- 
tives, this is not the work for them. Teaching is too 
noble and too sacred a calling to be trifled with. There 
is no other profession that offers such genuine rewards, 
that brings such joy in accompHshment, that furnishes 
such opportunity to be of service to one's fellowman. 



CHAPTER III 

THE GROWTH OF THE TEACHER 

Fully ninety per cent of the teachers in this land 
had little or no professional training when they began 
to teach. We have discussed what motives have led 
to their adopting this profession. Many of them have 
a natural bent for teaching and such young people 
are apt to be successful. But a natural liking for chil- 
dren and the possession of a disposition to control and 
teach them are not sure signs that the teaching power is 
inherent. There are few persons who do not love 
children, therefore this cannot be taken as an indica- 
tion. Most girls love to gather little children together 
and play "Keeping School," yet many of them never 
become teachers. On the other hand it is a rare thing 
that a boy acts as teacher in play, yet many boys 
become teachers. Therefore these early indications 
must not be taken too seriously. And this is true with 
other callings as well as teaching. How few men 
are following the occupation that their friends thought 
they were cut out for, and how often tendencies 
in children that are rather marked and that seem 
to hint at the destined field of endeavor, lose their 
force in later years; these early interests wane, and 
an altogether different occupation is chosen. 

The "Born" Teacher.— In former times the term 
**born" teacher was very common and it was believed 



THE GROWTH OF THE TEACHER 39 

that to be a successful teacher one must possess certain 
innate, unusual, mysterious qualifications. In public 
estimation the most important of these qualifications 
was the power to control children. I visited a country 
school in charge of a woman who had been recognized 
for many years as "the best teacher in the county," 
as a "born teacher," as "sl fine disciplinarian," etc. I 
found a woman stern and uncompromising in manner, 
rigid in her requirements, a veritable martinet. She 
made the children "toe the scratch," and everything 
was as automatic and machine-like as a printing press. 
She could "hear" the lessons and determine how 
much the children had committed to memory out of 
their text-books. She could make the children be- 
have by her dominant personality, but could not 
lead them into that self-control, that manliness, that 
genuineness, that sense of freedom and the power 
rightly to use it, which those teachers impart who labor 
from love and from a deep insight into the nature of 
children. This woman was not a "born" teacher 
although she had won that reputation. 

But a truer conception of the "born" teacher is 
gained by contact with teachers possessing a genius 
for imparting knowledge, and having the power to 
awaken interest, to arouse ambition, to stimulate 
intellectual activity, to engender a longing for noble 
things and a hatred for the ignoble. Such teachers 
there always have been. They are exemplified in the 
person of Confucius, of Socrates, of Pestalozzi, of 
Abelard, of Thomas Arnold, of Mark Hopkins, of 
Mary Lyon, and highest of all in our Great Teacher. 
Many a man who has had such a teacher looks back 



40 teaching: its aims and methods 

with gratitude and reverence upon him and ever 
holds him in sacred memory. Whether these persons 
have been great because of natural or of acquired 
qualifications, happy the boy or girl who has had the 
privilege of coming under their influence. The truth 
is, the teacher is no more *'born" than the lawyer, 
the doctor, the carpenter or the dressmaker is ''born.'^ 
Some men will make better lawyers than others, and 
some women will excel in dressmaking, and it will 
readily be conceded that there are certain innate 
qualities which make for success in any profession, 
in teaching as well as others, but no more than in 
others. Normal schools admit students who possess 
sufficient scholarship, good moral character, and a 
healthy body. They take no note of natural fitness 
or innate qualities, because few of the candidates have 
had previous teaching experience. Yet a large pro- 
portion of those received become successful teachers, 
fully as large as the product of any other kind of 
professional school. The State of New Jersey has given 
her normal graduates a second-grade certificate upon 
completion of the normal school course, which is fol- 
lowed by a life certificate after two years' successful 
teaching. Recently the State Board of Education has 
changed this and now gives a life certificate upon gradu- 
ation because in the last twenty-five years not one of 
the nearly five thousand graduates has been refused 
the advanced certificate. 

Teaching is a profession and normal schools very 
properly are founded to train young persons in the 
science and art of teaching. No one who desires to 
become a teacher need worry over the question of 



THE GROWTH OF THE TEACHER 4 1 

his capacity to teach. If one desires to become a 
teacher; if one possesses the necessary intellectual, moral 
and physical qualifications, and the ambition to suc- 
ceed; and if one be willing to work for success, one 
may confidently enter upon the professional training. 
If a mistake has been made it is almost sure to be dis- 
covered before the course is completed. 

Need of Growth while Teaching. — Having entered 
upon teaching with or without professional preparation, 
the teacher must continue to grow or there will be no 
educational progress. Education is progressing with 
us; new problems are arising as old ones are solved; 
educational agencies are alert and progressive; experi- 
ments are being tried and old theories and practices 
abandoned for new ones based upon the results of re- 
search; and thinkers are devoting their intelligence to 
educational matters as never before. Moreover, the 
public school and its mission never had so strong a 
place in the affections of the American people as at 
the present time. 

To keep pace with these wonderful movements the 
teacher must continue to grow. The normal school 
that best accomplishes its mission does not send forth 
its graduates puffed up with their professional knowl- 
edge or skill, but rather, while it gives them confidence 
in themselves and in the work they have done, it 
opens up to them the great questions concerning educa- 
tion and hints at their solution. True education makes 
one humble rather than conceited, unsatisfied with 
one's attainments rather than contented. It is the 
ignorant man who has a high opinion of his attain- 
ments. Place a candle in a dark place and it will light 



42 teaching: its aims and methods 

up a space say twenty feet in diameter. All within 
that space will be known. But just in the horizon 
thus formed there will be obscure and partially known 
objects, while beyond it all is unknown. Place a 
lamp at the same center and the diameter of the 
lighted circle may be fifty feet. The unknown objects 
just beyond the former horizon now become clear 
while many more objects within the extended space 
are brought to knowledge. But in the new horizon 
there are still more unknown objects than in the first 
one. Carry the illustration further by using an arc 
light capable of illuminating a space of one hundred 
feet in diameter. Once more the previously dim and 
uncertain becomes clear, but again the number of 
uncertain or partially known objects is multipHed in 
the greatly enlarged horizon. The vision in the last 
case covers far more than in the first. But at the same 
time it reveals far more of what is unknown, of what 
is yet to be explained, and hints at innumerable mys- 
teries lying beyond the new horizon. So it is with 
human knowledge. The further you extend the in- 
tellectual vision the more knowledge is gained, but at 
the same time it is revealed that there is far more yet 
to be known. The truly wise are always humble 
because they have a clearer conception of the un- 
fathomable depths of human knowledge and of the 
impossibility of mastering it all. No wonder that 
Sir Isaac Newton, after having reached the summit of 
the world's scientific knowledge of his time, exclaimed, 
''I am but a child gathering pebbles on the sea shore." 
The graduate of normal school, college, or university, 
therefore, instead of having "finished" his education, 



THE GROWTH OF THE TEACHER 43 

IS just ready to grow, and in no profession is there a 
greater inducement to further growth than in teaching. 
Means of Development and Growth. — I desire to 
show the means of growth both to the beginner with 
little or with much preparation, and to the teacher of 
experience. For both must grow or they will become 
stale and non-progressive. It may be that I will say 
some commonplace things. But it is better to be 
iccused of being commonplace than of being incom- 
Drehensible. 

I. Reading 

(a). Educational journals. — No matter how isolated 
;he teacher may be she can never be shut out from the 
)pportunity to read educational works. There are 
plenty of educational journals which abound in prac- 
ical suggestions for the schoolroom, in inspiring 
irticles, and which furnish excellent professional 
:raining. A good educational paper will return many 
:imes its cost in inspiration, in helpful suggestions, in 
iisclosing better methods, and in promoting educational 
idvancement. Any teacher who will regularly read 
I good educational journal may with assurance be 
expected to succeed. I have before me such a paper 
:hat contains educational news, methods of teaching, 
llustrative material, inspirational articles, suggestions 
IS to school management, material for entertainments, 
;uch as Decoration Day, Thanksgiving, and Christmas. 
rhe teacher can find here just the help she needs for 
ler daily work, and at the same time keep in touch 
vith educational movements. Not only will the chil- 
iren get the advantage of this live material, but the 



44 teaching: its aims and methods 

teacher also will promote her own growth and advance- 
ment. 

(b). Standard pedagogical works. — While educational 
periodicals stimulate and enlarge the immediate work 
of the schoolroom, no teacher can afford to limit 
her reading to these alone. There should be system- 
atic study of standard works. The former provide 
for the present, the latter are looking to the future. 
Educational papers are more or less transient in their 
effects; standard works seek permanent results. Many 
superintendents offer their teachers courses of reading 
in which are outlined suitable books for each year. 
Examinations are held, and certificates are given to 
those who complete the course. Such reading often 
furnishes the superintendent an excellent means of 
estimating the progress of his teachers and in deter- 
mining their worthiness of advancement. In many 
cities and counties there are teachers' libraries, and 
in some cases the State dupHcates the amount of 
money, up to a given sum, which the teachers raise 
for this purpose.^ 

But every teacher should possess a few choice edu- 
cational books of her own for ready reference and 
study. We have now a rich pedagogical literature 
covering every field of educational endeavor. A 
generation ago one could almost count on the fingers 
of one hand the number of books in English on this 
subject that were worthy of perusal. But this is no 
longer so. Educational writers have been wonderfully 
active during the last quarter of a century and each 

1 In New Jersey this sum is $ioo a ymx. 



THE GROWTH OF THE TEACHER 45 

year witnesses the production of hundreds of new 
books on this great subject. Moreover writers have 
ceased to be solicitous of being thought profound, 
stress being laid upon simpHcity and lucidity. "I 
hate this subject because I cannot understand it," ex- 
claimed a young teacher who was required to read 
through one of the old-fashioned works on pedagogy 
for an examination. 

The science and art of teaching furnishes a field of 
interesting material unsurpassed by any other field 
of human thought. Why present this material in 
language hard to comprehend or in terms that are 
obscure? Language is the vehicle of thought and it 
is the thought that we are after. Why make the 
language employed so hard to understand that there 
is no mental energy left for mastery of the thing 
wanted, the thought? 

The purpose of reading pedagogical literature has 
not so directly to do with the school work as to pro- 
mote the general professional growth of the teacher. 
Problems of education are considered and the reader 
is not so much concerned with such questions as, 
''What am I to do with my classes tomorrow?", 
"How shall I correct this or that evil?", "How shall 
I get my pupils ready for promotion?", etc. Books 
on pedagogy set the student to thinking upon such 
broad matters as a properly balanced and harmo- 
nized course of study, the preparation of the pupils 
for life's work, their moral as well as intellectual up- 
building, the adjustment of the work to suit the 
individual, the best method of presenting each subject, 
the formation of good habits, how to arouse interest — 



46 teaching: its aims and methods 

in a word, the best means of stimulating educational 
purpose. Therefore no teacher can afford to ignore 
this means of growth. 

(c). General literature. — There is a third kind of 
reading that the teacher must pursue in order to take 
a broad and intelligent view of life, and that is the 
field of general literature. The tendency of teaching 
is to narrow one's view of life because the teacher is 
constantly appealing to those below her in knowledge. 
To counteract this influence the schoolroom habit of 
thought should be dismissed when out of school, 
association with people of other interests sought, and 
a taste for general Hterature cultivated. This will not 
only be a source of pleasure and profit to the teacher, 
but it will also show itself in the enlarged influence 
which the possession of such general culture will enable 
the teacher to exert upon the pupils. For every teacher 
should possess resources far beyond the stated require- 
ments of the curriculum. The right kind of reading 
in the field of history, biography, and general litera- 
ture will furnish such culture. It will counteract 
the tendency to pedantry often manifested in school 
teachers, and furnish a never ending source of satis- 
faction and profit to the teacher. 

II. Teachers' Meetings 

(a) . Faculty meetings. — There is a variety of teach- 
ers' meetings that should stimulate growth. The 
first to mention is that of the teachers of a faculty or 
school. In these meetings the wise principal will not 
only direct the activities of his school, keeping in touch 
with the work of all his teachers, but he will also 



THE GROWTH OF THE TEACHER 47 

lead them into higher planes of educational work. Of 
course questions of discipline will be discussed, the 
progress of the classes as well as individual pupils 
will be noted, the work kept in harmony and often 
matters connected with general direction of the school 
considered. But besides this, there should be work 
outlined that looks to the improvement of the teachers. 
The nature of this work will depend upon the character 
of the school system, the number of teachers, and the 
training which the teachers have already had. In gen- 
eral, it should stimulate growth in educational matters 
that have no direct bearing upon the daily work. It 
should take the teachers into fields that will broaden 
and strengthen their general conception of the prob- 
lems of education. This can be done by assigning some 
part of a book for study and discussion, by calling for 
reports by individuals upon various themes, by essays, 
debates, etc. Such work can be made most profitable 
and it will react upon the schools and make them 
more efficient. 

(b). Teachers^ associations. — We have been consider- 
ing in the foregoing the growth of the teacher as 
fostered by local meetings. General teachers' associa- 
tions have other ends in view. They bring together 
the teachers of different systems, thereby affording 
an opportunity to compare work, to study general 
educational problems, and to gain inspiration from 
one another. In these meetings since the teachers 
make out their own programs, they are therefore able 
to discuss matters of deepest interest to them, to direct 
the policy, and often to conduct the exercises them- 
selves. 



48 teaching: its aims and methods 

The most helpful associations are those of the latter 
kind, that is, those in which the teachers themselves 
are on the program and conduct the exercises without 
calling upon outside speakers. If the membership is 
not too large so much the better, for there will be 
greater freedom in discussion and more frequent op- 
portunity to take part. I will illustrate my thought 
by describing an actual meeting that I attended. It 
was a county meeting and there were about fifty 
members present. The county superintendent during 
his visits in various parts of his district had noted 
work that was especially suggestive and advanced, 
and had invited these teachers to bring their work be- 
fore the association. One teacher with very meager 
outfit had produced some very excellent specimens 
of clay modeling, which she exhibited explaining how 
the work was done. Another had been very successful 
in curing tardiness and irregularity and her scheme 
was described. Another explained how she had in- 
terested parents in the school. Successful methods of 
teaching different subjects were presented. All these 
exercises were discussed by the members, questions 
were asked, criticisms freely offered, and the interest 
was general. It was a splendid meeting because every 
one present got something out of it. There was 
growth, educational, professional growth; and that was 
chiefly because the teachers did something themselves. 
They were '^learning to do by doing"; they were 
most practically illustrating the principle of self- 
activity, and when I was called upon to address them 
I frankly told them that they had better leave me out 
and go on with the work they were doing. Of course 



THE GROWTH OF THE TEACHER 49 

in great state and national associations this plan 
cannot be carried out. They can only discuss the 
general problems of education. Therefore they cannot 
be such a means of individual growth to the teachers. 
Their purpose is general and inspirational and they 
exert a tremendous influence upon the educational 
welfare of our community. 

I would advise the teachers of a township or locality 
to organize themselves into small groups for the study 
of their own problems. They could take some educa- 
tional work as the basis of study, appointing one of 
their number as leader, but should not fail to compare 
notes, to discuss schoolroom questions, to present their 
difficulties, and in a friendly way, to criticise one 
another. This will also take the conceit out of a 
teacher. I have already shown that there is a narrow- 
ing tendency in our daily contact with young children. 
We build up our theories and there is no one capable 
of showing the fallacies that may exist. We are the 
" law and the gospel " in the schoolroom, but not so in 
the teachers' association. If our pedestals have not a 
sound foundation there will be some one to knock out 
the unaerpinning and let. the structure fall. Better that 
our most precious idols be cast down if they are false 
idols, than that they be allowed to stand and continue 
to deceive us and others. Nothing will do so much 
for the professional growth of a teacher, considering 
the time and money invested, as membership in the 
right kind of teachers' associations. 



50 teaching: its aims and methods 

III. Teachers' Institutes 

Most states of the Union provide at public expense 
institutes for the upbuilding of teachers, lasting from 
one day to several weeks. Inasmuch as these are fur- 
nished free of cost to the teacher, her salary being paid 
while she is in attendance, the least that the teacher 
can do is to enter into the spirit of the work and seek 
to obtain the full benefit of the enterprise. Many of 
these institutes are a great means of instruction and 
inspiration. The teacher gets away from the routine 
of the daily work of the schoolroom and is afforded an 
opportunity to listen to advanced thoughts on educa- 
tion presented by educational experts and to enter into 
the discussions of new and important theories. Hon- 
esty towards the state, towards their pupils and pa- 
trons, and towards themselves would require an eager 
and attentive attitude on the part of teachers. 

The character of the work in teachers' institutes 
should be serious and instructive rather than merely 
entertaining. The problems of education should be 
considered, new methods presented, and inspirational 
themes discussed. To young and inexperienced teach- 
ers this is an exceptional means of growth. Nor need 
the teacher of long experience feel that the work of 
the institute is unworthy of his attention. There is 
always something worth while to all concerned in 
every meeting of this kind. If nothing else resulted, 
the association with other teachers and the contact 
with those of sympathetic interests would make the 
meeting of great value. 

Doubtless the increased number of normal and train- 



THE GROWTH OF THE TEACHER 5 1 

ing schools, the summer schools for teachers, the better 
supervision of schools, and the rich pedagogical litera- 
ture have greatly elevated the teaching profession and 
therefore lessened the need and changed the purpose 
of the teachers' institute; and yet, it still has a place 
in our educational poHcy. It should bring to notice 
the many new problems of education; it should suggest, 
inspire, uplift and diffuse enthusiasm. It must not be 
forgotten that every September there are one hundred 
thousand young men and women who begin teaching, 
most of whom have had Httle preparation. The 
teachers' institute is worth what it costs even if we 
take into account only the bringing together of teachers 
to confer, to discuss, and to learn from one another. 



IV. Pedagogical Courses 

Besides the normal schools and training schools and 
the teachers' colleges, there are summer schools and 
pedagogical courses in universities which offer abun- 
dant opportunities to the teacher anxious to grow. 
Many universities are offering Saturday and evening 
courses for teachers in their neighborhood, which may 
ultimately result in a degree; thus it becomes possible 
for teachers while earning their livelihood to continue 
their education and thus perhaps satisfy an earlier un- 
fulfilled ambition, namely, the acquiring of a college 
degree. Many boards of education encourage their 
teachers to take such special courses by offering in- 
creased salaries and promotion to those who avail 
themselves of such opportunity. 

There is thus an abundance of means for the ambi- 



52 teaching: its aims and methods 

tious teacher to advance in professional knowledge. 
The teacher who is wanting in such ambition will soon 
fall to the rear. Greater demands are being made 
upon our schools every year and these demands can 
be met only by the advanced qualifications of the 
teaching force. The teacher who does not grow will 
soon be crowded out of the profession. 



CHAPTER IV 

WASTE IN EDUCATION 

Waste an American Characteristic. — This country 
has been noted for the waste of its material resources. 
There has been waste in our forests, waste in the 
matter of municipal rights, waste in our water powxr, 
waste of pubHc domain, waste in the manner of tilling 
the soil and conserving its strength, waste in the 
methods of manufacturing, waste in the manner of 
transporting and marketing the products of farm and 
shop, waste in public life and in private life. We are 
the most wasteful nation on earth. Having exhausted 
and dissipated so much of our tremendous natural 
wealth, we are compelled now to meet other parts of 
the world on equal terms. Legislators and public 
economists have at last come to realize the situation 
and are seeking to conserve what remains and to 
introduce economic reforms. Many of the European 
peoples are gathering three or four times the amount 
of crops per acre that we are gathering and from land 
that has been tilled a thousand years, while we are 
abandoning farms as '' worn out " before they have 
been tilled scarcely a century. The remarkable trans- 
portation facihties of modern times on land and sea 
have brought the people of all lands nearer together 
and we find ourselves no longer isolated but a world- 



54 teaching: its aims and methods 

power and obliged to compete with other nations in 
trade, manufacture, and agriculture. All along the 
line men are engaged in studying how to eliminate 
waste in business, how to economize in production, 
how to save the by-products. Is it not fitting that 
educators should catch the spirit of the times and seek 
to eliminate educational waste? For there surely is 
waste in our educational practice. To know a dis- 
ease is the first step toward its cure. I shall en- 
deavor to point out some features of educational 
practice in which there is needless waste. 

1. Waste in the Selection of Material.^ — Criticism 
of the public school is frequent in the press, on the 
platform, in business circles, and among parents. 
This has always been the case and always will be. 
The criticism is, however, not always just, reasonable, 
or constructive. How often one hears a person who 
has reached mature years say something Hke this, 
*^ The schools are not so efficient as they were when I 
went to school"; or " They don't teach so thoroughly 
as they used to do when I was a boy." Of course 
there is an element of egotism in such remarks that 
is rather amusing. The fact is, the children are being 
better taught than they were in the last generation or 
in any other generation. They know better how to 
read, write, and cipher, and they have a better knowl- 
edge of the fundamental subjects upon which such stress 
was laid in the past. Besides this they are learning 
many subjects that were not thought of in those times 
which, however, for a practical preparation for the 

* See Chapters VIII to XV for a further discussion of methods. 



WASTE IN EDUCATION 55 

present activities of life, have become imperative. The 
criticism centers on the teaching of the ^' practical 
subjects," meaning the " Three R's." That even these 
are better taught now than ever before is capable of 
abundant proof. One has only to visit the schools to 
find this proof. But the celebrated and oft-cited case of 
the Springfield, Mass., examinations abundantly substan- 
tiates the statement. I may be pardoned for repeating 
this historic evidence. Some years ago papers covering 
examinations in arithmetic, spelling, and other subjects 
of children in the eighth grade were discovered. The 
date of these examinations was 1846. Here was 
definite evidence of the work in some of the best 
schools in the country half a century ago. These 
same questions have recently been given to pupils of 
the same grade in many schools in all parts of the 
land, and there has not been a single instance in which 
the pupils of the modern school have not far surpassed 
those of the earlier time. And these are the very sub- 
jects for which the old-time school chiefly stood. ^ 

One great trouble with the critics is that they fail 
to take into account modern requirements. They for- 
get that many things demanded of the modern school 
if needed at all were taken care of in the home, at 
that time. Half a century ago there was little study 
of geography and not much need of it. Indeed, but 
little was known of the geography of our country, as 

^ One typical record is as follows: 

1846 1905 

Spelling 40.6 51.2 

Arithmetic 29.4 54,5 

There are many others, equally suggestive and comparative. 



56 teaching: its aims and methods 

is shown by an examination of the old maps, especially 
those of our great West. A vast territory, now com- 
prising several states and cut up into milHons of fertile 
farms yielding immense crops of cereals, which make 
our country famous and which bring untold wealth, 
was known as " The Great American Desert." How- 
ever little a knowledge of geography might have been 
necessary in those times, it certainly is absolutely 
essential now for every intelligent person, not only for 
purposes of travel, but also for an enlightened com- 
prehension of the news of the day. Moreover, such 
knowledge is invaluable to one engaged in trade or 
transportation, for the price of staples is affected by 
weather conditions which affect the crops. The whole- 
sale grocer watches the weather reports during the 
season of planting, growing, and harvesting of crops, 
and is governed thereby in the purchase of goods. 
But these reports will avail him little if he is ig- 
norant of geography and does not know the sources 
of his supplies. Thus knowledge of geography be- 
comes a business asset. Therefore it is necessary to 
teach geography in a practical way such as was not 
required in the old time school. 

So, too, a knowledge of physics has become essen- 
tial. The wonderful discoveries and inventions con- 
nected with electricity alone make necessary a great 
deal of teaching for which there was no call half a 
century ago. The apphcation of electricity in lighting 
and heating, in power to drive machinery in factories 
and in locomotives, and in the various arts, opens 
fields of practical study that every intelligent person 
must enter. The same is true of chemistry, a knowl- 



WASTE IN EDUCATION 57 

edge of which in its relations to foods, soils, and in the 
manufactures and arts is absolutely essential to pre- 
pare one successfully to compete in life's activities. 
Ignorance of these matters seriously handicaps a man 
who must meet competition in the strenuous life of 
the present. Manual training and domestic science, 
which in former times were taken care of in the home, 
in some measure perhaps sufhcient for the times, must 
now be provided in the schools. The enlarged sphere 
of woman's activities necessitates a training for girls 
such as formerly was not needed. 

All these things, and many others, have added 
great new burdens to the requirements of the school. 
None of them can be omitted, and if they were, the 
grounds of criticism would be sounder, and they would 
justly be proclaimed vigorously. A preparation for 
life under our present civilization is a far different 
problem from that of half a century ago, and it would 
be inexcusable if the schools did not earnestly seek to 
meet it. That educators are earnestly seeking to meet 
present' conditions, to solve present problems, to pre- 
pare the children for the life they must live, cannot 
be doubted. 

Teachers appreciate the deficiencies and weaknesses 
of the schools better than other men because they are 
experts and are ever in contact with them. Let no 
critic of our schools believe for a moment that the 
schoolmaster hugs himself with the delusion that our 
educational system is perfect or that the schools are 
doing all that can be done for the child. We know 
the defects of our work just as the skilled mechanic 
sees defects in his workmanship, the artist recognizes 



58 teaching: its aims and methods 

imperfections in a painting, or a musician detects dis- 
cords. The greater the professional knowledge, the 
keener the appreciation of defects. Every one will 
admit that the teachers are better qualified than ever 
before in the history of the world and therefore the 
schools must be better. For it is forever true that 
^' As the teacher is, so is the school." Admit that 
the teachers are better and it then follows inevitably 
that the schools are better. 

(a). What should be eliminated. — Waste in the 
choice of material is not found then in the addition 
of these new and essential subjects to the curriculum, 
these so often falsely called '' Fads and frills," but 
rather in the retention of some of the so-called "funda- 
mentals." The old-time arithmetic devoted a great 
deal of space to such subjects as, Duodecimals, Stock- 
jobbing, Compound Interest, Partial Payments, Bank- 
ing, Exchange, Equation of Payments, Arithmetical 
Progression, Euclidean Method for Highest Common 
Factor, Complex Fractions with more than one frac- 
tion in the numerator and denominator, impractical 
tables of measure, many formulas in Interest, etc. 
These took an immense amount of time and yet they 
have but little practical use except in special occupa- 
tions. They do not conform to modern business prac- 
tice and therefore are of little value in preparing for 
business life. Indeed, business men employ tables for 
computing interest, and other devices in computations 
that secure more rapid and accurate results. All the 
arithmetic needed in practical life can be taught in 
much less time than is usually devoted to that sub- 
ject, thus leaving time to devote to other work. 



WASTE IN EDUCATION 59 

In like manner other subjects taught in the schools 
contained much that was useless. The process of 
elimination has already begun and must continue until 
the material in any subject will be such as shall prepare 
the child to compete intelligently with his fellowmen 
under present conditions of life. To teach the child 
to spell individual words without reference to their 
meaning, is waste; to have him commit pages of 
history and lists of dates without considering the 
relation of history to life, is waste; to give him rules 
of grammar without employing them in the construc- 
tion of sentences, is waste; to teach him definitions, 
and to locate places in geography without showing 
him how they relate to human Hfe, is waste. And, 
as already remarked, there is far more waste in these 
things than there is in the introduction of new and 
practical subjects, not found in the old curriculum, be- 
cause the latter are vital and essential. 

(b). What the child should know. — It may be well, 
in this connection, to ask what may reasonably be 
expected of the school, what goal has the parent a 
right to expect his son or daughter to reach at the 
conclusion of the common school course at about four- 
teen years of age. This is a fair question and a con- 
sideration of it may aid the teacher in his own work 
and the parent to form a just estimate of the efficiency 
of the school. I think a child who has completed the 
common school course should be able (i) to read his 
native language intelligibly and with understanding; 

(2) to express himself with tongue or pen accurately 
and fluently, using good English and correct spelling; 

(3) to know the geography of our own country thor- 



6o teaching: its aims and methods 

oughly, its climate, its productions, its industries, its 
cities, its river and mountain systems, its variety of 
surface, its means of transportation, and its waters, 
as well as a general knowledge of the geography of 
the rest of the world; (4) to know the history and the 
civil institutions of our own and other countries; (5) 
to possess such knowledge of arithmetic as is necessary 
for the ordinary requirements of life; (6) to know the 
structure and functions of his own body so as to be 
able to conserve his health; (7) to have such an 
acquaintance with natural science as will enable him 
to interpret the phenomena of every day life as he 
meets them; (8) to have such aesthetic training as will 
enable him to appreciate music and art and utilize 
whatever gifts in this direction he may possess; (9) his 
mind should be stored with many gems of literature, 
and a taste for and knowledge of the best works 
should have been established; (10) finally, he should be 
indoctrinated with the spirit and forms of politeness, 
the basis of which is unselfishness, and which is the 
essence of moral character. These things should be 
accomplished in the elementary school, and if it fails 
of this result, parents may well call the school to 
account. The material selected should be such as 
will aim to teach these ends, and whatever material 
will aid in this purpose cannot be denominated waste. 
2. Waste in the Employment of Incompetent Teach- 
ers. — I have already shown {page 22) that a large 
proportion of our teachers are untrained. Let us see 
what this really means from an economic standpoint. 
It should be borne in mind that the money spent in 
maintaining the school, the salaries of teachers and 



WASTE IN EDUCATION 6l 

janitors, the furnishing of supplies, the heating, light- 
ing, and up-keep of the plant, together with the 
interest on the investment, is after all, only a small 
part of the cost. Even a child's time has a com- 
mercial value, else there would be no need of child 
labor laws to protect children from the avarice of 
parents and the greed of employers. Economists have 
estimated that a child of fourteen has a commercial 
value of at least three dollars a week. Placing a lower 
value upon all the children of the elementary school, 
an average, say, of two dollars a week, and multiplying 
this by the number of children in a class we have a 
sum far exceeding all the recognized school expenses. 
As a concrete illustration, suppose a teacher to be 
employed at $600 a year; estimate janitor's service 
for her room together with suppHes, repairs, interest 
account, etc., at $400; making a total outlay of $1000 
for the class. If there are 35 children in the class 
whose service is worth $2 a week each, or $70 for the 
40 weeks of the school year their commercial value is 
$2800, or nearly three times the cost of running the 
school. If this reasoning be sound, and it seems to 
me that it is, how important does it become from a 
purely commercial standpoint that the time of the 
children shall not be wasted by placing a poor teacher 
over them. A member of a school board once re- 
marked after a year's service of an incompetent 
teacher, '^ The community and the children would have 
been better off had we closed the school and thrown 
the money invested for it into the Atlantic Ocean." 
And he told the truth in a deeper sense than he realized. 
A poor teacher is a poor investment from any stand- 



62 teaching: its aims and methods 

point. Indeed, it is a great waste, and the financial 
loss is by no means the most serious loss even if we 
reckon both the actual outlay and the value of the 
children's time. The failure to make reasonable prog- 
ress and to receive the best preparation for life, the 
forming of bad intellectual and moral habits, the acqui- 
sition of wrong ideals, the lack of stimulating and 
uplifting ambitions — these and many other perils 
are among the possible results of poor teaching. 
Teaching in the highest and best sense is both a 
science and an art, as has been shown, and no one 
should undertake it without a knowledge of both. 
Therefore boards of education that employ unfit 
teachers because they are cheap are recreant to their 
trust. Not only are they wasting the money of their 
constituents, but worse still, they are robbing the 
children of their rightful opportunity, and are adding 
to the number of future inefficient men and women. 

3. Waste in Wrong Methods. — Closely allied to 
the foregoing is the waste in methods of instruction. 
In the early period of the child's life, he can be reached 
only through the senses. A knowledge of the great 
lesson that Pestalozzi emphasized, the proper use of 
objects, is essential to the equipment of the primary 
teacher. And yet, right here, a caution is necessary. 
Many young teachers, having learned that the child 
learns through concrete illustration, conclude that the 
more objects employed the better. In teaching num- 
ber, for example, they bring in blocks, splints, kernels 
of corn, beans, and marbles, etc.; thus overwhelming the 
children with a great variety of objects. Such multi- 
pHcity of objects serves to distract the mind from the 



WASTE IN EDUCATION 63 

purpose in view, which is to teach number. A young 
teacher made from cardboard a beautiful Swiss cot- 
tage for her class in number. She was to teach the 
number six and the cottage had six windows, each 
with six panes of glass, and various other devices 
involving the number six. The children naturally were 
dehghted with the house and their wonder and curi- 
osity were excited. But it was impossible for her to 
attain the end in view, the teaching of the number 
six, because their minds were distracted by the object 
itself, the cottage. Had the purpose of the recitation 
been to discuss Swiss life, or to study architecture, or 
to awaken the aesthetic sense, her creation would have 
been entirely suitable. But as a means for teaching 
the number six it was a failure. It must not be for- 
gotten that every particle of interest devoted to the 
object itself is so much interest withdrawn from the 
end sought. To use attractive objects in teaching 
number dissipates the attention. For example, if a 
teacher were to use oranges or apples, inevitably there 
would be aroused in the minds of the children ideas of 
taste, smell, color, possession, etc. Therefore the sim- 
plest kinds of objects must be employed, which, while 
they furnish sufficient concrete illustration, do not 
distract the mind from the real purpose of the lesson. 
The end sought must never be lost sight of. '' What 
was the purpose of that lesson? " was asked of a 
young teacher who had just enthusiastically held the 
interest of a class of Kttle children. In confusion she 
replied that she did not know, that she really had no 
definite purpose. Her work was entertainment, not 
teaching. . The lesson should be entertaining, or at 



64 teaching: its aims and methods 

least interesting, but it must have an end in view or 
there will be no instruction. No mere method can be 
successful unless the teacher has from the outset a 
clear notion of what she is seeking. The teacher of 
young children must understand the activities of the 
child mind, must appeal to it by objects and illustra- 
tions, and must know how to choose wisely the kind 
and number of objects, in order to reach the end she 
clearly has in mind. 

In later grades there will be a gradual withdrawal of 
the concrete, for it may well be said that the end of 
education is to gain abstract notions. So long as 
illustrative material is needed, let it be used; but do 
not use it when it is no longer necessary. When the 
child does not need it it is only a hindrance to ac- 
quirement. Teachers often have trouble in preventing 
children from employing their fingers in counting or 
adding. They forbid the practice and use various de- 
vices to keep the children from doing it. Such a 
course is absolute folly, for no child will count on his 
fingers if he knows the results without doing so. 
Drill until the abstract idea has been gained, and 
there will be no need to forbid counting on the fingers. 
The child will take the " short cut " in his work so 
soon as he is able to do it, just as an adult will. When 
he knows instantaneously that 4 and 3 equal 7 he will 
never resort to his fingers. Therefore the effort 
should be directed to bring the pupil to a knowledge 
of the abstract. No particular age or grade can be 
specified at which the concrete shall be abandoned. 
Concrete illustration is employed in the laboratory 
of the higher institutions, in the biological and medical 



WASTE IN EDUCATION 65 

clinic, by public speakers before adult audiences. Let 
it be used so long as it will elucidate and emphasize 
the truth to be taught, and let it be abandoned when 
its purpose is mere entertainment rather than in- 
struction. 

The method employed with older children gradually 
becomes more abstract. When one method fails, the 
teacher must be versatile in the employment of other 
methods until the result is attained. The presenta- 
tion of a subject by a variety of methods tends to fix 
the knowledge more thoroughly. The teacher must be 
grounded in theory and practice, must know the child 
mind, and be able to adjust his teaching to each 
peculiar type of mind and to the stage of development 
it has reached. Lack of this means waste of effort and 
a want of adequate success on the part of the pupils. 

4. Waste the Result of Poor Physical Conditions. — 
There are many things belonging to the physical en- 
vironment of the school that contribute to the waste 
in educational investment. Uncomfortable surround- 
ings, such as improper seats, bad light, lack of suitable 
equipment, poor ventilation, and unsanitary arrange- 
ments, etc., prevent the children from doing their best 
work, and therefore cause a serious waste. These con- 
ditions often cause permanent injuries such as curvature 
of the spine, ill-health, round-shoulderedness, nervous- 
ness, and sometimes incipient tuberculosis. Medical in- 
spection is doing much to remove and overcome these 
evils; but, as yet, it can only touch the surface. No 
doctor's prescription can counteract the evil effects of 
an unsanitary school building with poor ventilation 
and bad light. The remedy Hes back of the m.edical 



66 teaching: its aims and methods 

inspection, however efficient this may be; it lies with 
the school board whose duty it is to furnish proper 
school facilities, and still back of them it lies with the 
people who supply the means. Lately many school 
systems have employed a school nurse whose duty it 
is to carry out the directions of the medical inspector, 
and a school visitor who goes into the homes and 
seeks to instruct and interest parents in matters of 
health. It has been said that ^' No one has ever seen 
a mind that was not connected with a body." Such 
being the case, care of the body becomes of vital im- 
portance in caring for the mind. 

It can easily be shown that poor ventilation reduces 
vitality, weakens the power of attention and thus 
materially diminishes the efficiency of the school. A 
concrete illustration will show the material saving in 
the matter of ventilation. A good system of ventila- 
tion was installed in a school building at an expense 
of $3000. The cost per annum of maintenance was 
estimated at $500. Allowing interest on the invest- 
ment to be $200; the total cost per annum was $700. 
In that building 600 children were taught at an 
expense of about $15000 a year. Pure and wholesome 
air was always found in the rooms at all times of the 
day. If ten per cent was added to the efficiency of 
teachers and pupils because of these healthful conditions, 
and surely that would be a conservative estimate, it 
will appear that the investment of $700 was yielding 
an annual return of $1500, if one could commerciaHze 
teaching power. I remind the reader that this result 
does not take into account the far greater question 
of health of both teachers and pupils. 



WASTE IN EDUCATION 67 

School equipment. — Many boards of education, es- 
pecially in rural communities, fail to appreciate the 
need of proper school equipment. Who does not know 
of school trustees (farmers, perhaps) who expect the 
teacher to get along with inadequate facilities — • 
books, maps, and other necessary equipment — who 
would not be so foolish as to send their men into the 
field to work with poor tools? Just as the farm-hand 
or the mechanic can show his efficiency only when 
supplied with proper tools, so the teacher is handi- 
capped when not supplied with the necessary materials. 
There is tremendous waste in these particulars. A 
superintendent presented to the assembled school 
boards of his county a carefully worked out scheme 
whereby for $83 seven sets of supplementary readers 
for the eight grades, sufficient for the whole township, 
could be purchased. He showed how these books could 
be passed around to all the schools of a township so 
that every child would have an opportunity to read 
from seven books and thus get an enlarged vision of 
the riches of literature instead of going over the same 
material again and again in one book. And this for 
S83 for a whole township! The proposition did not 
arouse a particle of interest in the minds of those 
trustees. One could not help wondering what would 
have been their attitude had he presented a scheme 
whereby they could increase the output of their dairies 
or get more bushels of corn to the acre. And yet, 
this man was presenting a plan by which their children 
would obtain the richest heritage of the world, an ac- 
quaintance with the great thoughts of great men. It 
goes without saying that it is the poorest kind of busi- 



68 teaching: its aims and methods 

ness policy to build a schoolhouse, hire a teacher, 
and then fail to furnish the necessary tools to work 
with. 

There is another field in which the physical plays 
an important part, and that is in the matter of food. 
The body cannot perform its proper functions, without 
sufficient nourishment any more than an engine can 
run without fuel. During a prolonged strike in the 
coal mines in the middle west it was found that the 
children of the miners became unequal to their former 
intellectual tasks. Lack of funds in the homes neces- 
sitated a restriction in diet and the children came to 
school hungry and incapacitated for vigorous work. 
How many children, especially in our city schools, 
come to school every day with empty stomachs! 
How can we expect vigorous work, either intellectual 
or physical? Recent investigations have proven that 
many children come to school without breakfast and 
this has led to provision being made to furnish them 
food, sometimes at public cost and sometimes by pri- 
vate philanthropy. Here arises a serious problem, 
namely, the danger of encouraging pauperism. If the 
state should supply food for school children would not 
parents neglect to provide for their own offspring? 
Does it not tend to paternalism? 

Let us see how far the state has already gone in 
this direction. First, the schools were partly free, a 
small tuition being charged, the balance being paid 
from public funds. Next the public school became 
wholly free. Then followed free text-books and school 
supplies. Later came free transportation to those 
Hving too far away to walk. The question may well 



WASTE IN EDUCATION 69 

be raised, when will the end be reached? Shall the 
child be fed and also clothed at public expense? 
Are we not tending towards the condition of Rome 
when she began to decline? But the ill-fed child is 
unable to do efficient work, and the state has under- 
taken to educate him. On the one hand there is 
the child incapable of education from want of 
nourishment, and on the other hand there is danger 
of pauperizing the people. The child must be fed if 
he is to learn. Who is to feed him? I think this 
should be undertaken chiefly by philanthropic so- 
cieties, the state supplementing their work only when 
necessary. Aid received from philanthropic sources is 
regarded as a favor; that received from the state is 
regarded as a right. Hence the former has less ten- 
dency to pauperize. A commission should be ap- 
pointed whose duty it would be to look into the 
merits of each case, who should have power to compel 
parents to do their duty whenever able to do so, and 
who should then contribute both food and clothing to 
all needy and worthy cases. This would minimize the 
danger of encouraging unnatural parents in negligence 
of their sacred duty towards their offspring. 

A writer interested in this subject has well said, 
"Just as it is useless to try to convert a hungry 
man, so also it is useless to try to develop a child 
who is -underfed, who is unhealthy, who is in an un- 
comfortable atmosphere, or who is suffering from some 
physical defect. No one knows how much money is 
being wasted in attempting to teach under such con- 
ditions. If efficiency means anything, it means more 
than effort put forth, it means more than expended 



70 teaching: its aims and methods 

energy, it means predominantly the maximum results 
that may be obtained with the minimum amount of 
energy expended. Poor ventilation means waste; poor 
home conditions means waste; poorly adapted and 
self conscious-making clothing means waste; physical 
defects means waste in capital letters, and uncomfort- 
able school furniture means waste." 

5. Waste in the Limited Use of the School Plant. — 
Hundreds of millions of dollars have been invested 
in this country in school plants. The schoolhouse is 
the pride of the community and nothing so stimulates 
settlement and investment in a town as good school 
buildings and good schools. A wealthy real estate 
dealer bitterly fought the erection of a new school 
building in a village. But so soon as the building was 
erected in spite of his opposition, it was noted that 
he was shrewd enough in advertising his property to 
proclaim the proximity of a fine school. He knew that 
the estabUshment of that school had enhanced the 
value of his property very materially. No apology 
is made, therefore, for the expense of good school 
buildings provided they are needed, are built economi- 
cally, and are suited to their purpose. But they lie 
idle for a large part of the time. Occupied for less 
than six hours a day, and for an average of less than 
half the days of the year, there is a tremendous waste 
in the investment. What manufacturing plant, what 
store, what industry of any sort could survive if it fol- 
lowed this practice? Many of these enterprises work 
night and day in order that the great investment in 
the plant itself may yield suitable returns. 

The school to he a social center. — There is a grow- 



WASTE IN EDUCATION 71 

ing sentiment for making the school a social center 
where not only children may freely gather outside of 
school hours for instruction and amusement, but where 
parents also may convene for social and intellectual pur- 
poses. Such a practice would not only be a great 
boon to many parents, but it would also popularize 
the school itself. At great expense philanthropists are 
erecting and supporting buildings for the Y. M. C. A., 
the Y. W. C. A., and other organizations, with the 
idea not alone of awakening reHgious zeal, but also 
of providing safe places for amusement and social 
intercourse. Why not also utiHze the public school 
plant already at hand? Religious questions need not 
be introduced as people of all forms of belief have an 
equal right to the public school. But it may be men- 
tioned that the rural schoolhouse has been used for 
more than a century as a meeting house, where the 
itinerant preacher periodically proclaimed the word 
of God, and is still being so used. 

Many educators have come to beHeve that the 
summer vcaction of nearly three months is a serious 
drawback to the educational progress of the children. 
Even this is often extended by thoughtless parents 
who take their children away to a summer resort a 
week or two before the close of school and bring them 
back several days after school opens in September. 
Vacation schools accordingly are being maintained 
ostensibly to enable backward children to make up 
their work, but it has been found that many parents 
send their children to these schools even though they 
are not behind in their studies. After a long vacation 
without study the child returns to school rusty, and 



72 teaching: its aims and methods 

considerable time must be spent to bring him back 
to the point where he was when school closed, thus, in 
effect, shortening the school year, and again adding 
another item of waste. Vacation schools are already 
taking a strong hold upon the community, and are 
destined to take a still stronger hold. 

Let the pubhc school be open to children and parents 
outside of school hours for purposes of amusement and 
recreation, for social and intellectual advancement, 
and for anything that will upHft the community. Let 
there be books, and magazines, and newspapers, and 
games, and gymnastic apparatus, free for the use of 
all, under a suitable direction supported by the pubHc 
treasury. Such use of pubHc money is justifiable and 
is a good investment. In Gary, Ind., the schoolhouses 
are open day and night for seven days in the week. In 
a certain city a sum of money was appropriated for the 
maintenance of several playgrounds on school premises 
during the summer. The police judge, before whom 
juvenile criminals were brought, testified that in this 
first year's experiment, the number of juvenile cases 
that came before him was less than forty per cent of 
that of the previous year. A good investment, surely, 
not alone in the saving of court and jail expenses, and 
in saving of fines, but far more in the Hves of the 
boys themselves. Let there be organized social clubs, 
mothers' clubs, and other organizations for mutual 
good, with the schoolhouse as the place of meeting. 
The school plant can thus be utihzed so as to be a 
pubhc good all the time and not for the limited time 
it is now used. It can be made a wonderful help in 
uphfting a community who here can meet on common 



WASTE IN EDUCATION 73 

ground. This, instead of being isolated for school pur- 
poses a few hours a day. And such use of the school 
plant would greatly help the teacher in his work. 

6. Other Causes of Waste. — I can only allude to 
some of the other means of waste in educational 
practice. If the daily program is not properly ar- 
ranged there may be a serious waste of energy by 
teachers and pupils. Psychology and experience teach 
us that some subjects can be grasped and remem- 
bered better when presented at certain times of the 
day, and that other subjects do not lose by being 
placed at a less favorable period. Obviously the 
schedule of work should be so arranged as to cause 
the least possible loss, taking all the subjects into 
consideration. Failure to do this would mean a 
great waste. The teacher therefore should study the 
arrangement of the daily program. 

Then there is waste in the presence of the backward 
child. He takes an unusual amount of the teacher's 
time, hinders and retards the other pupils, and does 
not make suitable progress himself. I shall leave a 
further discussion of the backward child to another 
chapter (Chapter V). 

Again there is a great waste in the loss of children 
from school. All countries substantially agree that 
it is the duty of the state to require the child to be in 
school till he is about fourteen years old. Ayres has 
shown that by the time the eighth grade is reached, 
one-half of the class that started in the first grade 
have dropped out. Somewhere along the line they 
have fallen by the way. Some have dropped back into 
lower classes, or remained unpromoted, while many 



74 teaching: its aims and methods 

have left school. If we include the high school, he 
shows that only one in eighteen reaches the fourth 
year. There certainly is great waste here, for analysis 
of which I must refer to the work below cited. ^ Ayres 
shows in addition that in 55 cities 15.4 per cent of the 
pupils are repeaters. 

There is also great waste in irregular attendance. 
This is a loss not only to the offenders themselves, 
but also to the rest of the class. No parent can say 
that keeping his child from school is his own business, 
for every child is entitled to an education and that 
right is superior to any interest the parent may have, 
and the irregular attendance of the few affects the 
progress of the class as a whole. 

The cost of our schools is increasing by leaps and 
bounds; teachers, while getting better salaries, are still 
inadequately paid; antiquated and unsanitary build- 
ings are being replaced with modern and attractive 
structures; better equipment is being supplied, and the 
cry is ever, ''More money for the public schools." 
The people are responding nobly until the expense for 
schools has become the chief item of the tax budget. 
It therefore behooves teachers and school boards to 
remove every element of waste in the schools, whether 
found in any of the directions pointed out or in any 
other direction. Dewey says, ''What we want is to 
have the child come to school with a whole mind and 
a whole body, and leave school with a fuller mind 
and a healthier body." 

1 Ayres, '' Laggards in Our Schools," pp. 58 and 59. 



CHAPTER V 

BACKWARD AND DEFECTIVE CHILDREN 

The Problem of the Backward Child. — There is 
scarcely a schoolroom in the country that is free from 
children who are below grade from some cause or other. 
These children are often a fertile source of disorder, 
a menace to the morals of the school, and a cause of 
anxiety and extra labor to the teacher. They may 
be divided into two general classes, namely, the 
backward and the defective or subnormal. Were the 
school freed from these children, the work would be 
far more satisfactory and school more congenial and 
successful. But the school can never be entirely free 
from the first class, the backward, and perhaps not 
from the second class, the defectives. At least not 
until the people become convinced of the need of 
segregation, and not until more adequate means are 
provided for it. Public attention has recently been 
directed to the better care of these unfortunates and 
a serious study of the best means of dealing with them 
is being made. 

Greatest efficiency on the part of the teacher is pre- 
vented by the presence of delinquent pupils who act 
as a drag upon the progress of the class as a whole, 
and who, it has been found, are the chief sources of 
disorder. Moreover, the morals of the school are often 
contaminated by the presence of one or two children, 



76 teaching: its aims and methods 

who are backward in their studies and deficient in 
moral and mental capacity. Surely those parents 
who have trained their children in right conduct and 
pure life should not have their work undermined in the 
public school by children of vile habits. Such children 
must be removed, not alone for their own sakes, but 
also for the good of the other children, so soon as 
they are found to be a menace. 

It has been said ^ by experts in this work that 
^'The problem of the backward and dull child in 
the public school has recently assumed an unexpected 
importance. Formerly the idea was to eliminate him, 
or by proper punishment, or educational procedure 
to try to compel him to take his place with the rest. 
He has been the constant bane of superintendents, 
principals, and teachers. Not infrequently, the school 
board itself has been called in to settle the trouble 
that he has made. We now know that he is not to 
be made over into the ideal pupil, but that he is to 
be accepted and dealt with as he is; that his difficulty 
is largely a constitutional one and that he constitutes 
a special problem which can be handled only by special 
methods. While in most cases he is not capable of 
being made like other children, for that very reason 
he requires exceptional care and treatment. The im- 
portance of this is shown by the now demonstrated 
fact that unless cared for, he grows up to become a 
pauper or a criminal, a delinquent or dependent. It 
is now beheved that at least one-quarter of our drunk- 
ards, paupers, criminals, prostitutes, and ne'er-do-wells 

^ "The Education of Backward and Mentally Deficient Children," 
Prospectus of New York University Summer School, 19 13. 



BACKWARD AND DEFECTIVE CHILDREN 77 

were dull and backward children. They were back- 
ward not merely in the sense of being slow and needing 
to be spurred onward, but backward because they 
were of a peculiar mentality which could not be trained 
to do the work that other children did. In other 
words, a large percentage of our criminal classes are 
distinctly feeble-minded. 

''The recognition of this fact places a great civic duty 
upon the school authorities. If the school accepts the 
problem and does its duty, these children may, to a 
large extent, be saved from a life of dependency and 
crime, made reasonably happy and a little useful, 
although they never may be made normal. 

"Furthermore, the relief felt in those classes of normal 
children where these defective children were formerly, 
is so great as to work an actual revolution in the entire 
situation. The grade teacher, thus relieved of the 
dull and defective children, is able to carry on her 
work with a satisfaction not before dreamed of. Her 
time, attention and energy are not distracted and 
dissipated by these dullards and she is able to give 
her best to the normal children that are left in her 
rooms. The effect is very great upon these normal 
children who are thus spared the example of the slow 
and often apparently bad children. The problem of 
truancy and incorrigibility is largely solved, since 
the defective is the type of child that makes up the 
greater part of the truants and incorrigibles." 

Causes of Backwardness: Classification. — Backward 
children are not necessarily defective. There are many 
causes of backwardness, such as, absence from school, 
adenoid growths, enlarged tonsils, defective eyesight 



yS teaching: its aims and methods 

or hearing, insufficient nourishment, late entrance to 
school, ignorance of the English language, too many 
demands upon them by their parents, etc. No careful 
study of these causes has been made until recent years. 
Valuable light has been thrown upon this subject by 
an investigation under the auspices of the Russell 
Sage Foundation by Mr. Ayres.^ He has shown ^ that 
in 33 cities the percent of retardation varies from 7.5 
to 75.8 percent, and he thinks that approximately 
one-third of the children in our city schools are above 
the normal ages of their grades. 

Nor has there been made any systematic attempt 
to provide for these backward children until recently. 
The state of New Jersey has taken the lead in this 
work by passing a law (in 1911) requiring an investi- 
gation of the number of backward children in all the 
schools of the state, and providing for the establish- 
ment of special classes for their instruction. In view 
of the pioneer work in this important field a full presen- 
tation of the plan may aid others. The Department 
of Public Instruction of New Jersey in a pamphlet 
on ''The Treatment of Subnormal Children," has 
offered some important suggestions. It proposes that 
all retarded children shall be grouped as follows: 

CLASS A. Miscellaneous. — This class includes (i). 
Foreign-born children unfamiHar with the English 
language. These should be arranged in classes of not 
over 25 pupils and an elastic and liberal scheme of 
promotion should be provided: (2). Children who en- 
tered school late or have been irregular in attendance. 

1 "Laggards in Our Schools," by Leonard P. Ayres. 

2 7j/^_^ page 45. 



BACKWARD AND DEFECTIVE CHILDREN 79 

These should be treated in a manner similar to the 
foregoing: (3). Physical defectives who are not neces- 
sarily mentally subnormal. They may have defective 
eyes, ears, vocal organs, or enlarged adenoids and 
tonsils. This class should have special medical treat- 
ment with a view to the removal of the difficulty. Care 
should be taken that no stigma may be attached to these 
children who are by no means mentally subnormal, but 
unfortunate rather. 

CLASS B. Incorrigibles. — The presence of these pupils 
is a menace to the good order and to the morals of 
the school. These are to be removed to a special 
school where the course of study is limited to their 
needs, emphasis being laid on training the manual 
activities. Experience has taught that such children 
very generally abandon their vicious practices when 
set at work with their hands. It has also been found 
that insubordinate children, when taken from the 
regular classes and placed in a group by themselves 
under sturdy, strong, and wise teachers, cease to be 
insubordinate. Usually such boys love to ''show off" 
and astonish other children by their boldness and wick- 
edness, and when segregated with others of like 
tendencies, they no longer have a motive to be bad and 
their occupation is gone. After all, the secret of the 
government of a school Kes in the power to keep all 
the children happily interested. Many of these chil- 
dren haVe found nothing in the regular school work 
to interest them, and they have broken loose from 
orderly restraint. 

Manual and industrial arts appeal to them, and 
when they are given an opportunity to learn these 



8o teaching: its aims and methods 

things, their viciousness disappears and they may 
be trained to become useful citizens. The New Jersey 
laws permit any board of education to provide speciai 
rooms or establish separate schools for the instruction 
of this class of children. Their removal from the 
regular classes, where they are misfits, where they gain 
little themselves, where they prevent other children 
from doing their best, and where they are a constant 
menace to the morals of the school, eliminates a serious 
hindrance to the work of the teacher. It is not the 
intent of the law that these schools should carry the 
stigma of a reform school or juvenile criminal institu- 
tion, which may cling to a person for life; it is an 
attempt to reach peculiar cases in a manner suited to 
their peculiarities and thus save them to society. 

CLASS c. The Mentally Subnormal. — Unlike the first 
two classes. Class C includes those who are below 
normal mentality. While the number of this class is 
relatively small, still, they are to be found in every 
school and nearly every classroom. They are a drag 
upon the progress of the class and add greatly to the 
problem of discipline. Experts estimate that nearly 
two per cent of the school children belong to this class. 
They also believe that most of the incorrigibles are 
also subnormal in mentality. The teacher is generally 
uncertain regarding this class, not being able to de- 
termine whether a backward child is dull, slow, 
physically unfit, lazy, or whether it is mentally de- 
ficient. Every teacher hesitates to pronounce a child 
feeble-minded, both on account of the child itself and 
on account of its friends. Therefore in doubtful 
cases expert opinion should be called. 



BACKWARD AND DEFECTIVE CHILDREN Si 

External evidences of feeble-mindedness, — If an ex- 
pert is not available the following description of 
mentally subnormal children by experts who have 
become famous will aid the teacher.^ "Mentally 
subnormal children in the public schools exhibit certain 
common characteristics. The essential evidence of 
mental limitation is that the child is persistently 
unable to profit by the ordinary methods of instruc- 
tion, as shown by lack of progress or failure of pro- 
motion through lack of capacity." In order to aid 
the teacher who lacks expert knowledge of this subject, 
and yet who must meet the situation in her own 
classroom, a summary of the suggestions made as to 
the characteristics of feeble-minded children in the 
pamphlet referred to may be of value. 

The characteristics by which these children may be 
identified are as follows: (i) They do not possess and 
are unable to develop an extended vocabulary. (2) 
They lack the power of voluntary and continued at- 
tention. (3) They are easily fatigued and soon lose 
interest. (4) They are backward in such school work 
as requires judgment or reasoning, though they may 
excel in memory work. (5) They choose for their 
companions children younger than themselves. (6) 
They have weak will-power and are therefore easily 
led by their playmates, though they are often stubborn 
and subject to fits of bad temper. (7) Very often 
feeble-minded children can be picked out because 

1 See " The Treatment of Subnormal Children," a pamphlet issued by 
the New Jersey Department of PubHc Instruction. The description 
given is made by Supt. Johnstone and Dr. Goddard of the Vineland Train- 
ing School. 



82 teaching: its aims and methods 

of some physical peculiarity; this is shown by the 
slouching gait, the open mouth and drooping jaw, the 
inexpressive eyes, which are close together, the retract- 
ing forehead, the small chin, the vacant stare, and the 
foohsh grin. 

State Aid for Special Classes. — As a result of the 
New Jersey law much light has been thrown upon this 
subject and many school boards have established special 
classes for each of the three grades of children speci- 
fied so that many of them are segregated from the 
regular pupils. The law provides a state appropria- 
tion of $500 for each teacher employed for special 
classes, thus encouraging and aiding the local board 
to make the provision. Such special classes are lim- 
ited to from ten to fifteen pupils and teachers of pe- 
culiar fitness and preparation are sought. This has 
caused a demand for specially trained teachers which 
has been very difficult to fill. 

The Vineland Summer School. — The school for 
feeble-minded at Vineland has again taken the lead 
by founding and maintaining until recently a summer 
school for the training of teachers to meet this demand, 
an example that has been followed elsewhere and is 
destined to receive a much greater response as public 
conscience awakens to the importance of the move- 
ment. Realizing the pecuKar quahfications, natural 
and acquired, of this class of teachers, school boards 
are paying the expense of attending a special school 
and are offering increased salaries to young persons 
willing to devote themselves to this work. And these 
boards are the more willing to meet these conditions 
as they appreciate that the regular class work, as 



BACKWARD AND DEFECTIVE CHILDREN 83 

already seen, is unsuited to these unfortunate children, 
doing them little good, and perhaps harm, while the 
normal children are hindered and retarded by the pres- 
ence of the others. By such elimination the normal 
children may be afforded an opportunity for the em- 
ployment of their full powers, while the sub-normal 
may be given the kind and amount of work suited 
to their mental and physical condition. 

The Kind of Teacher Required for each Class. — It 
may be profitable to consider the qualifications that 
are desirable in teachers for each of these classes of 
children respectively. This may aid the teacher in 
making a decision with reference to engaging in this 
important work. For peculiar qualifications are neces- 
sary, and the teacher who lacks patience to deal with 
these unfortunates, who is wanting in sympathy for 
their weaknesses, who is unable to adapt herself to 
pecuHar and individual cases, who does not possess a 
broad and humane understanding of the sad limita- 
tions of these children, should not undertake this work. 

For the first class, those who are backward because 
of circumstances such as a lack of knowledge of the 
English tongue, irregularity in attendance, physical 
defect, etc., but who are mentally normal, the teacher 
should be mature and experienced, sympathetic in 
nature, and capable of discovering and meeting the 
difficulties of such children. For the second class, 
the incorrigibles, who must be removed to special 
schools, teachers should be physically strong and of 
vigorous personaHty. It has been found that boys 
belonging to this class are usually best reached through 
manual and industrial activities, therefore the teacher 



§4 teaching: its aims and methods 

should be equipped in these special fields. Manliness, 
firmness of character, and a complete understanding 
of the boy nature are absolutely essential. 

For the third class, the mentally deficient, State 
Commissioner Kendall says, ''It is desirable that she 
(the teacher) be a normal graduate, but this is not 
necessary if she has had some intelligent and success- 
ful experience. She will need a happy and optimistic 
temperament, and the great patience that comes from 
a large sympathy with slow and uncertain children. 
She should have an intellectual and social interest. in 
the problem of the subnormal child. The teacher for 
this class should be able to give instruction in manual 
training. There should, however, be added to the 
qualifications of temperament, character, and experi- 
ence, the special training of at least a six weeks' 
summer study of this class of children at Vineland or 
its equivalent. This minimum amount of study should 
be increased at intervals of not longer than three 
years, by other special courses of study." We have 
seen that many boards of education show their appre- 
ciation of these suggestions by holding out the induce- 
ment of larger salaries and by special allowance for 
the expense of attending such a summer training school. 

The -purpose here is not to indicate the methods to 
be employed in training either of these classes of 
backward children. That must be left to experts 
specially prepared to deal with such children in schools 
devoted to that work. I have endeavored to show 
how the regular class teacher may discover these chil- 
dren and determine to which class they belong. Hav- 
ing reached this conclusion, the teacher will be able 



BACKWARD AND DEFECTIVE CHILDREN 85 

more intelligently to decide what can be done with 
them. Clearly, the last class, at least, should be segre- 
gated. Dr. Goddard has shown beyond question that 
feeble-minded persons are a danger to society, not alone 
because of their criminal tendency, but because their 
progeny are likely to be feeble-minded, thus forever 
perpetuating the peril. He has shown also that the 
feeble-minded are easily led and therefore readily 
become instruments of crime to those more intelligent 
and more vicious, that they possess little moral sense, 
and that through weakness of intellect they are un- 
able to take care of themselves. Hence they should 
not be at large, either in the school or out of it, but 
should be sent to institutions where they will no longer 
be a peril to society. And this segregation should be 
carried out at least so soon as they reach the adolescent 
period when they are the greatest danger. The child 
that is congenitally feeble-minded can never become 
normal, and the only way to lessen the number of 
this unfortunate class is to prevent their propagation. 

New Jersey is experimenting with a system of coloni- 
zation of this class of persons upon the waste lands in 
the southern part of the state. The design is to protect 
them and society as well, make them happier than they 
could be at large, and, at the same time, utilize them for 
their own maintenance so far as their capacity permits. 
Thus may be solved the problem of expense involved in 
segregation. 

The other two classes will have to be provided for 
largely in the regular schools, as it is impossible to 
provide separate institutions for them, however much 
this may be desired. If the teacher understands the 



86 teaching: its aims and methods 

class to which the unusual child belongs, the first step 
has been gained and she will be able to deal with him 
more wisely. If he belongs to Class A, he must be 
cared for in the regular school, though in special classes. 
Infinite pains should be taken to overcome his back- 
wardness. It often occurs that such pains are amply 
rewarded. I have in mind a German boy about sixteen 
years old who spoke English very brokenly. The 
other pupils were inclined to ridicule him whenever he 
attempted to recite. His queer English amused them 
greatly. One day he was slowly attempting to solve 
an example in arithmetic, and when the class began 
to laugh he sat down in confusion. Determining to 
put an end to the attitude of the class and give the 
boy a chance, I said to the class, "What is there to 
laugh at? If there is something to laugh at I would 
like to join you." The pupils who had taken their cue 
from a former teacher who made sport of "Dutchey" 
were thoroughly ashamed of themselves. I had great 
interest in the boy, knowing that he was doing 
chores for his board. Turning to him, I said, ''John, 
can you do that example?" ''I think I can, sir," he 
replied. "Very well, try again, and take all the time 
you need," I said. Thus encouraged, the boy correctly 
solved the problem, and I may add, John became the 
best student in mathematics in my school, and those 
who had ridiculed him were glad later to seek his aid. 
Another case may be of interest in illustrating this 
point. A boy about twelve years of_^age entered school 
and came to me for grading. I found that he was 
sadly retarded in his education owing to irregular 
attendance, his father being something of a nomad, 



BACKWARD AND DEFECTIVE CHILDREN 87 

SO that the boy had been in many schools, and much 
of the time in none at all. ^'What do you know, my 
boy?" I asked. "Well, sir, I don't know much of 
anything," he replied. Upon examining him, I found 
that he spoke the truth. ''In what grade do you 
think I should place you?" I further asked. ''Put me 
in a low grade of course," was the answer. "You see 
I know nothing." I placed him where I thought he 
would get the most good and watched his case. In a 
week or two I advanced him a grade, and still later 
another grade until finally he found his place. He 
became the brightest boy in my school. Every teacher 
of experience has had similar cases. To deal with 
them requires patience, sympathy, common sense, and 
a willingness to adapt the work to their peculiar 
needs. 

The Work of an Industrial School. — Some boys are 
incorrigible because the regular school work fails to 
appeal to them. There is no doubt that the intro- 
duction of normal and industrial training into our 
modern courses of study is the salvation of many boys. 
I visited the Boys' Industrial School at Newark, N. J., 
not long since, and was profoundly impressed with 
the enthusiasm and interest apparent. Many of the 
boys had been dismissed from other schools as in- 
corrigibles, truants, and misfits. They were engaged 
in many forms of industrial work, such as printing, 
mechanical drawing, electrical installation, wood and 
iron work, etc. The boys were regular in attendance, 
obedient, thoroughly tractable, and eager to learn. 
They had found their sphere. A record of those who 
had completed their courses showed that almost 



88 teaching: its aims and methods 

without exception they were making good in the 
various positions they occupied. Their employers 
spoke in highest terms of their efficiency and faithful- 
ness. Thus the school is saving boys from probable 
lives of criminals, and making them useful citizens. 
It certainly is much cheaper for the municipality to 
support such schools and save the boys than it would 
be to let them become criminals and be obliged to 
provide jails for them. And instead of their being a 
dead loss to the community they add to its wealth and 
prosperity by becoming useful members of society. 

Need of Flexible School Courses. — The time is coming 
when our courses of study will be made far more 
flexible. Some children are "born short" in certain 
directions, and to compel them to take the whole of a 
formal course of study is martyrdom to them and to 
their teachers. They are not defectives in the common 
acceptance of the term, they are capable of becoming 
useful men and women if only their aptitudes are 
discovered and considered. One has only to study the 
history of some of the world's greatest men in order 
to verify this statement. Emerson could not learn 
mathematics; General Grant had no comprehension of 
music; Henry Ward Beecher was not a brilliant student; 
Peter Cooper was dull in his ordinary school studies; 
and Sir Isaac Newton, James Watt, Charles Darwin, 
Sir Walter Scott, and many others, who have been the 
world's greatest benefactors, would have been called 
backward children had they been classified by the 
rigid requirements of a course of study. 

The course of study should be flexible enough to 
meet peculiar cases, permitting the child to omit 



BACKWARD AND DEFECTIVE CHILDREN 89 

without humiliation such things as are found to be 
outside of his capacity. By no means should a mere 
whim on the part of the child be allowed to control, 
nor should he be excused from studying a subject 
simply because he does not like it; it must be clearly 
demonstrated that he is ^'born short" in this particular. 
To do things that we do not like to do, to perform 
tasks, is sometimes the best of discipline. It gives 
stamina of character; it makes one sturdy and self- 
reliant; it prepares one, undaunted and undefeated, to 
rise again when overtaken by disaster and begin the 
fight anew; and it affords the supreme satisfaction that 
comes from conquering an opponent worthy of one's 
steel. Children love to undertake hard tasks. There- 
fore if we are to build up a strong, aggressive, inde- 
pendent manhood, we must train our pupils not to 
shrink from the difficult or unpleasant. But when it is 
clearly demonstrated that a child is wanting in capacity 
to learn a subject, the curriculum should be so flexible 
that the teacher may modify it to suit the individual 
case. 

Concerning those who at some time in their lives 
would have been classed as backward children, Marden 
very forcibly says, "The world has been very kind 
to many who were once known as dunces or block- 
heads, after they have become very successful; but it 
was very cross to them while they were struggHng 
through discouragement and misinterpretation." Every 
teacher has such dull children in her classes, and though 
they may not turn out to be Edisons or Darwins or 
Emersons, they may become useful men. I cannot 
better conclude this chapter than by quoting once 



90 teaching: its aims and methods 

more from Marden. He says, '^Give every boy and 
every girl a chance and reasonable encouragement, 
and do not condemn them because of even a large 
degree of stupidity; for many so-called good-for- 
nothing boys, blockheads, numskulls, and dullards, 
were only boys out of their places, round boys forced 
into square holes." 



CHAPTER VI 

THE MAINTENANCE OF ORDER 

The Necessity of Order. — Whenever a number of 
persons are brought together in a body having a com- 
mon purpose and seeking a common end, regulations 
to secure orderly action must be accepted. In all our 
relations in life we are subjected to regulations and we 
do not consider that our liberties are being infringed 
upon or our legitimate rights surrendered. Thus if 
we take a train we must conform to the time-table 
and submit to such rules as the railroad company has 
deemed necessary. If we wish to buy a ticket for a 
public entertainment, or draw money from the bank 
we must take our place in line and wait our turn. 
Even if we play a game we must follow the rules. No 
one thinks of objecting to these necessary restrictions. 
So too, in the class where 30 or 40 children are as- 
sembled, regulations become necessary which may not 
be needed in the home where there are but one or 
two children. One of the best reasons for sending a 
child to school, where he comes into contact with other 
children and where he must be subjected to regulations 
analogous to those that he must submit to in later 
Hfe, is found here. In the school he learns the duties 
of citizenship, the importance of yielding selfish in- 
terests to the needs of many, the necessity of obedience 



92 teaching: its aims and methods 

to law such as he is not likely to learn in the home 
under the direction of his parents or a tutor. 

A young lady student was expelled from a normal 
school for violating an important rule. When asked 
by a friend as to the reason of her expulsion, she 
replied, ^'I left the boarding hall one evening and went 
out walking with a gentleman friend. I have done 
no wrong, I am in the habit of doing the same thing 
at home." "But," said her friend, ''you were not 
at home, you were in a school, whose regulations you 
had promised to obey." ''I do not see the sense of 
such a rule," she replied. ''There surely is no harm 
in walking out with a decent young man. My parents 
allow me to do so at home. I can see no wrong in it." 
'^Of course there is no harm in that under proper 
conditions," was the reply. "But this rule has been 
found necessary where so many girls are involved. 
If you may do it, certainly the four hundred other 
girls must have the same right. Suppose this were 
granted and a large number of them availed them- 
selves of the privilege. How would an item in the 
newspapers like this appeal to the parents throughout 
the state? 'Late last night four hundred girls of the 
state normal school were seen on the streets walking 
with young men.' Would this add to the good name 
of the school? Parents would withdraw their daughters 
from the school at once." "I see the force of what 
you say. I have made a fool of myself," was the girFs 
answer. The whole trouble with this girl was that she 
failed to recognize the truth I am trying to impress, 
that where a number of persons are involved regu- 
lations are necessary. No reasonable regulation is 



THE MAINTENANCE OF ORDER 93 

burdensome, nor does it arouse antagonism from the 
well-disposed, whether it be a rule for children in the 
school or a law of the land for adults. 

Obedience to authority is natural and resistance to 
just authority is unnatural. The teacher should take 
advantage of this natural instinct of the child to 
submit to the wise direction and superior knowledge 
of those in authority. An enthusiastic young teacher 
was led into error by the false teachings of an institute 
lecturer who painted in bright colors a form of school 
discipline in which all friction was to be removed and 
the school made a paradise which he called a ^^minia- 
ture republic." Following the plan thus outlined the 
young principal spoke as follows to his pupils upon 
reopening school: ''Boys and girls, we are going to 
change our whole scheme of government of the school. 
I am not going to govern any more, you are to govern 
yourselves. We are all on an absolute equality as 
becomes a republic. Whenever there is an offense 
against good order, we will take up the case, discuss 
it together, hear all sides, and then take a vote as to 
what shall be done. That vote shall be final as we 
are all equal citizens in this school. You have just 
as good a right to your opinion as I have to mine and 
shall have equal authority." Of course the proposi- 
tion met with hearty approval and the experiment 
was inaugurated. For a few days everything went 
along smoothly. But after a little while when a 
case came up for trial the pupils began to take partisan 
sides whenever their friends were involved. Nothing 
suited them better than to spend the time of the school 
in unfruitful discussions, for thus they could escape 



94 teaching: its aims and methods 

their legitimate work. The teacher was helpless for 
they were ready to quote, "You said that we are all. 
equal, and therefore our opinion is as good as yours." 
The "miniature republic" rapidly merged into anarchy 
and good order disappeared. After trying the experi- 
ment for a few weeks, the teacher made another 
speech in which he said, "Our miniature republic is 
played out; I am the sole ruler of this school," and 
again there was peace and good order. The proposi- 
tions of the lecturer were fallacious for the following 
reasons: i. The pupils are not the teacher's equals 
in knowledge, age, experience, or authority. The 
teacher, by virtue of his license to teach and his ap- 
pointment, alone is clothed with authority. 2. The 
pupils are wanting in stability and constancy of pur- 
pose essential to self-government. Primitive peoples 
are denied this right until by long training they are 
prepared for it. 3. The punishments meted out are 
apt to be unfair. They are too mild for favorites, too 
severe for enemies. Experience has taught that 
student councils are often severer in their discipline 
than the faculty would be, severer than justice or the 
necessity of the case demands. Hence, although the 
teacher may delegate certain duties to pupils and allow 
them some responsibility, the final word of authority 
and decision must rest with him. 

And yet, I would not imply from the above dis- 
cussion that the pupil should have little to do in gov- 
erning himself. Indeed, the great purpose of school 
discipline is not merely to maintain order, however 
necessary that may be, but to train the child to that 
essential quality of American citizenship, the power 



THE MAINTENANCE OF ORDER 95 

of self -government. He should gradually be led to 
this power, not only through his studies, but also by 
the very methods of discipline employed in the school, 
as I shall attempt later to show. 

What is Good Order? — It is important that there 
should be a right idea of good order. I once visited 
a schoolroom in which pandemonium reigned. The 
teacher was constantly hammering his desk with a 
heavy ruler in order to make the children be quiet, 
thereby creating disorder himself. The children natu- 
rally were inattentive, mischievous, and disorderly. 
I visited another school that was in charge of a woman 
noted throughout that section as ''a good disciplin- 
arian." The children sat remarkably erect in their 
seats, studied with painful stillness, and marched 
with great precision to the front. Moving pictures 
could not have been more exact or automatic. There 
was not a spontaneous act in the whole proceeding. 
It would have been a relief if some boy had yelled, 
''You're it," or ''Sis, boom, bah," anything to break 
the awful silence and precision. That was no more 
good order than in the former case, as any intelligent 
superintendent would know. 

But to answer the question, "What is good order?" 
I would say that a school is well-ordered when every- 
body is busy at his work, when the pupils naturally 
and quietly go about the room without disturbing 
others, when they are attentive and interested in their 
duties, and when they are cheerfully obedient to the 
necessary regulations. It is true that good order some- 
times requires absolute quiet, as when the teacher is 
speaking to them. Sometimes pupils must sit erect, 



96 teaching: its aims and methods 

but certainly not at all times; sometimes they must 
march like soldiers, but not in all their movements; 
sometimes they may rest, but to be long idle is dis- 
orderly. The teacher must learn to distinguish be- 
tween order and confusion: between the necessary 
noise of proper occupation and that which is dis- 
turbance; between legitimate activity and that which 
must be restrained; between innocent and vicious 
mischief. And the teacher who has learned these 
lessons will have little trouble in discipline, and surely 
will not be in danger of nervous prostration. She 
will go serenely on with her work, being alert when 
there is real danger, not indefinite in her requirements, 
firm and rigid when there is need of it, and yet, withal, 
breathing a spirit of gentleness and sympathy that 
will surely win the confidence and love of her pupils. 
Then the latter will perform their duties cheerfully 
and promptly, and the atmosphere of the schoolroom 
will be wholesome, inspiring, and natural. That is 
good order and the school that has attained it is 
Paradise. 

Practical Suggestions. — In order to aid the teacher 
in securing these results, I should like to offer a few 
practical, commonplace, it may be, suggestions. 

I . Make as few rules as possible. — Some rules will 
be necessary, as we have seen. Make a rule only 
when it becomes necessary after proper warning. Let 
it be clear and definite, and then carry out its pro- 
visions firmly and impartially. Do not anticipate an 
evil. Many a teacher has suggested mischief by mak- 
ing rules concerning matters that have not yet come 
up. In a young ladies' boarding-school it was found 



THE MAINTENANCE OF ORDER 97 

that outbreaks were likely to come after the girls had 
been home for a holiday. Their mothers and aunts 
had bragged about their boarding-school escapades, 
and the girls returned to school with the ambition 
to surpass the feats of wickedness of the past genera- 
tion; hence there was always an increase of mischief 
after a vacation. The unwise prattleof their elders 
had suggested evil. 

2. Keep control. — I have already suggested that the 
teacher should acquire the habit of subconsciously 
distinguishing between order and confusion. The 
teacher that allows the incidents of the schoolroom to 
disturb her equanimity will soon meet with a nervous 
breakdown. Children are full of life and innocent 
mischief; few are inherently vicious. Most of the 
mischief of children is due to a superfluity of animal 
life and not to wicked intent. A wise teacher will 
find means to work off this overflowing vigor. She 
will have the children march, go through calisthenic 
exercises, send them into the open air for lively play, 
devise various means to let them work off steam. 
One teacher sent a boy overflowing with animal life 
to run around a block. He returned having worked 
off his surplus energy and there was no further trouble 
with him. When a teacher finds that the little flock 
are getting restless, there is no use in trying to go 
on with the regular work. It is time for something 
unusual, something to divert their minds, and the 
resourceful teacher will save the day by introducing 
unexpected features. She will save herself irritation 
and probable discomfiture. The teacher must always 
be in command of the situation. It is well to draw 



98 teaching: its aims and methods 

in the reins once in a while merely for the sake of 
testing her control. So long as the pupils readily 
yield to necessary restraint there is safety. The 
fussy, nervous teacher is not calculated to preserve 
good order. The children will be affected by her 
temperament, and confusion will surely result, while 
the teacher herself will find her school duties burden- 
some and intolerable. The schoolroom should be a 
joyous and happy place, attractive alike to pupils 
and teacher, where every one is mutually interested. 
Such a school will not need much governing, it will 
largely govern itself. Nor is it a question of the age 
of the pupil. I once witnessed an example of organized 
mischief on the part of six-year old children in a Berlin 
school. The teacher was utterly helpless and confusion 
reigned. What those children needed was some vig- 
orous and unusual exercise, but nothing of this kind 
was specified in the school regulations, and the teacher 
entirely lost control. 

There will be some noise, as there always is when 
people are active. But noise is by no means neces- 
sarily disorder. As a boy I used to visit a neighbor- 
ing grist-mill. The miller would fill his hopper with 
grain, set the stones grinding, and then go to sleep. 
When the grain was run out and the stones had nothing 
to grind, my friend would at once wake up. The noise 
made in grinding did not disturb him, because it was 
orderly noise; but that of the turning stones with 
nothing to grind aroused him because it was dis- 
orderly noise. So the teacher must learn subcon- 
sciously to distinguish between the proper noise of 
busy activity and that which means mischief and 



THE MAINTENANCE OF ORDER 99 

disorder. The former will not disturb, because it is 
legitimate; the latter calls for action. 

If the spirit that I have tried to portray prevails 
in the school, a large part of the irregularity and 
tardiness will disappear, for children will go to school 
because they love it and not because they are sent or 
because they fear the truant officer. There are many 
such schools at present, and this ideal is becoming 
more and more prevalent as teachers come to under- 
stand their great mission. A bullying manner, harsh 
methods of punishment, and brutal practices are wholly 
out of place in the control of children. Indeed, they 
defeat their purpose in that they arouse antagonism 
and cultivate stubbornness in the pupils. Therefore 
the milder and more humane methods of control that 
characterize modern school discipline are evidences of a 
better understanding of the child nature and signs of 
genuine progress. 

The secret of control lies in the awakened interest. 
So long as the pupils are engaged in some interesting 
occupation, they will behave themselves. This is 
illustrated in the case of the boys described in the 
Newark Industrial School, and it will always be 
found true. Hence the teacher should be furnished 
with an abundance of material; there should be not 
only mere devices, but also a broad educational basis, 
with a fund of knowledge and experience upon which 
to draw. There is no stronger argument for a thor- 
oughly educated teaching profession. 

3. Be positive and firm. — While gentle and humane 
methods of control are advocated, this does not mean 
that the teacher should lack firmness and decision, 



loo teaching: its aims and methods 

or that she should fail to exact strict obedience of 
her pupils. Such weakness would be fatal to good 
order. It may be remarked that children respect and 
love the teacher who holds them to strict account, 
rather than the teacher who is weak and vacillating 
and who seeks to win favor by ignoring their offenses. 
I have already shown that obedience is natural, and 
therefore failure to exact it will surely bring dis- 
respect and want of confidence. The teacher must be 
straightforward and positive in her requirements, and 
must leave no doubt in the minds of her pupils of her 
determination to be obeyed. She must be sure of 
herself and confident of her ability to enforce her 
demands. Children are quick to note the absence of 
these quahties and are sure to take advantage of any 
weakness. The teacher should not be rash in reaching 
conclusions, but when convinced as to what is the 
right action, she should not shrink from carrying it 
out. 

It may be that at the first, considerable time must 
be devoted to the matter of discipline before the pupils 
understand just what is expected of them. Such 
time is well spent if the lesson is so well learned that 
later there is little occasion for discipline. For it 
must not be forgotten that order in the schoolroom is 
a means to an end, and that is to make instruction 
possible. 

Punishments. — So long as human nature is what it is, 
there is no escape from the employment of punishments 
for offenses committed. The attitude of the teacher 
in this matter should be different from that of the judge, 
who deals largely with mature and responsible beings. 



THE MAINTENANCE OF ORDER lOI 

The judge must punish for the sake of example to 
restrain others from committing a Hke offense, to 
avenge the law, to protect society. Hence the law 
provides penalties for each offense, merely giving the 
judge discretionary power under certain limitations. 
The school, on the other hand, is dealing with little 
people who are largely irresponsible, who do wrong 
without forethought, and who seldom have a vicious 
motive. Because of this no fixed penalties should be 
attached to school regulations, so that the teacher may 
treat each case on its individual merits. Nor should 
punishment of children be administered as a retribu- 
tion or as an example for others. I wish to emphasize 
the thought that the child should be treated as a child, 
and therefore when punishment is necessary, it should 
be inflicted for his particular offense. Hence some 
children will receive a different punishment, and per- 
haps a severer one, for a given offense than others 
might receive for apparently the same offense. The 
teacher should not reason, 'Xharles did this wrong 
and I kept him after school, and now Mary has done 
the same thing and therefore she must remain after 
school." There may be mitigating circumstances in 
Mary's case, and whatever was suitable for Charles in 
order to bring him to a sense of his wrongdoing, might 
not be necessary for Mary. 

Is there not danger of the teacher being accused of 
*' showing partiality"? I think not. It is only when 
the teacher shows favoritism to a child because of 
family or social position, or for some cause external 
to the school, that such charge is likely to be made. 
There need be no fear of this criticism if the teacher 



I02 teaching: its aims and methods 

acts honestly and fearlessly on the merits of the needs 
of each child. 

Herbert Spencer gives wise advice when he says 
that punishment should be the sequence of the offense. 
If the child does not behave on the playground, he 
must not go out with the, others; if he annoys others 
in his seat, he must be isolated; if he quarrels with 
others on the way home, he must be detained till after 
the others are gone. The teacher will find abundant 
ways to carry out this principle. 

Again, the amount of punishment must be consid- 
ered. The young teacher is prone to be too severe. 
Her theory is, ''He deserves so much punishment, and 
it is my duty to administer it." This is a mistaken 
idea. ''What punishment is necessary to bring him 
to a sense of his wrong?" should be the determining 
gauge. A professor was annoyed by a student who 
continually lounged in his seat. Now he might have 
been justified in calling the young man sharply to 
account, thus humiliating him before the whole class. 
This would undoubtedly have aroused resentment and 
possible defiance. The teacher, however, quietly asked 
the young man to stop after class, and said to him: 
"Mr. G., you are to be a teacher. Would you allow 
your pupils to lounge in their seats as you do?" 
"Why, no, sir, I would not," was the reply. "Well, 
now, I think I do not need to say anything more, do 
I?" pursued the professor. "You will have no further 
trouble with me," was the hearty response. The 
evil was thus corrected and mutual good feeling m.ain- 
tained. 

It is not the purpose here to give devices, but rather 



THE MAINTENANCE OF ORDER IO3 

to state principles, leaving it to the teacher to find 
the application for each individual case. In order to 
have these principles governing punishment clearly 
before the teacher, I shall repeat them in compact 
form. 

1 . Let there he no fixed penalties for school offenses. 

2. TJte punishment should he the sequence of the offense. 

3. The least punishment that will secure the end is the right 
punishment. 

4. Punishment should he individual rather than for the 
purpose of furnishing an example to others. 

With these principles in mind the teacher should be 
able to select the form of penalty necessary to meet 
each particular offense. 

Kinds of Punishment. — In general, we may divide 
punishments into two kinds, improper and proper. 
Among the former may be mentioned scolding, nagging, 
anything of a cowardly nature, those punishments that 
are cruel, and those that are humiliating. The teacher 
has no right because of superior strength or authority to 
take advantage of the weakness of the children. ^' Why 
have I whipped you, my son?" asked a father of his 
boy. '' Because you are the bigger," was the reply. 
Whatever degrades or humiliates, whatever causes a 
loss of self-respect, or awakens just resentment, or is 
unreasonable or cruel, should be absolutely prohibited. 
Pulling the hair or ears, striking upon the head, or 
any other form of punishment that is dangerous 
should never be practiced, even if corporal punishment 
is not forbidden. Indeed, the teacher that employs 
such punishments should not only be displaced, but 
should also be made to answer in a court of justice. 



104 teaching: its aims and methods 

I shall attempt to show what punishments are 
proper as follows: 

I . Reproof. — This is the most common form of 
punishment, and it is effective in a large proportion 
of school offenses. There are many forms of reproof, 
such as a look, an act, or a direct word. A teacher 
was placed in charge of a class that had become un- 
ruly and troublesome. The children came to school 
dirty, were careless in littering the floor and in the 
use of school materials, and were generally disorderly. 
The teacher walked down the aisles examining hands 
and faces, observing the condition of desks and floor, 
and scrutinizing the general situation. Not a word 
was said, but the children fully understood the rebuke 
and were thoroughly ashamed. Gradually they began 
to pick up papers and put their premises to rights. 
Each day the same silent scrutiny was carried on by 
the teacher, and each day more and more of the chil- 
dren came to school with clean faces, combed hair, 
and more tidy dress, until the evil was wholly cor- 
rected. A look was the only rebuke administered, and 
it was sufficient. 

If the reproving word must be used, it should never 
be vindictive or sarcastic. There is no place for sar- 
casm with little children, if ever it has any place. 
It blisters and hardens the child nature and reacts 
upon the teacher herself. It makes the teacher sour, 
hard, unsympathetic, bitter, and such a person has 
no place in the schoolroom. Constant association 
with children ought to sweeten, purify, ennoble, and 
make gentle. When the word of reproof must be 
spoken, it should be clear and decisive, though kindly, 



THE MAINTENANCE OF ORDER I05 

SO that there will be no mistaking its meaning. Pains 
should be taken to show the pupil the nature and 
gravity of his offense. Often a wrong is done without 
the child comprehending its seriousness. Generally 
speaking, reproof should be administered privately. 
No one likes to be held up to public obloquy. Reproof 
before the whole class is likely to arouse defiance on 
the part of the culprit and awaken the sympathy of 
the class for him. Taken alone, he is without the sup- 
port of his comrades, is not humiliated, and therefore 
may be reached and brought to acknowledge his wrong. 
While there are grave cases of wrongdoing that call 
for pubhc rebuke, such cases are rare, and the teacher 
should always be reluctant to adopt such extreme 
measures. 

2. Deprivation of school privileges. — Every teacher 
grants freedom of action to her pupils in certain 
matters depending upon environment, age, and other 
circumstances. Among these may be mentioned per- 
mission to move freely about the room, possibly to 
leave the room, to get a drink, to whisper, to seek 
assistance, etc. Withdrawal of any of the privileges 
would be a punishment. Here is afforded an excellent 
opportunity to carry out the principle already dis- 
cussed, namely, the punishment should be the sequence 
of the offense. 

3. Deportment marks. — This is often an effective 
form of punishment in that it affords an opportunity 
periodically to call to the attention of parents, in 
terms that they can appreciate, facts as to the child's 
conduct. If parents are intelligent and in sympathy 
with the school, the use of deportment marks is doubly 



io6 teaching: its aims and methods 

effective. Parents sometimes make the system even 
more successful by supplementary punishments. Some 
teachers average the deportment marks with the 
class standing, thus making them a determining factor 
in promotion. Such practice is at least questionable, 
for the deportment of children is often bad because 
they do not have sufficient suitable work to do. What 
folly, then, to keep back a child because of his deport- 
ment, when if he were placed in an advanced class, 
where he would be kept busy, his deportment would 
probably be better. 

4. Suspension and expulsion. — I shall discuss these 
together, as the latter is merely the finality of the 
former. Suspension is made by the teacher and is 
temporary, while expulsion is made by the school 
board and is permanent. Well-behaved and decent 
children should not be required to associate with those 
that are indecent and vicious. It is the duty of the 
public school to protect all the children from all im- 
moral influences, and parents must have confidence 
in its ability to do so. A bad, vicious boy, addicted 
to profane and vulgar language, can undo the work 
of years of patient and loving training on the part of 
the home. In most states the laws permit the sus- 
pension of children who cannot be controlled in the 
school. The teacher must take advantage of that 
right when children are insubordinate, incorrigible, or 
a danger to the morals of the other children. The 
unfortunate part of such action is that in many cases 
it merely turns the child upon the street to become 
even more vicious. Therefore the teacher should be 
reluctant to administer this punishment unless con- 



THE MAINTENANCE OF ORDER 107 

vinced that the good of the pupils as a whole makes it 
necessary. The state compels school attendance on 
the one hand, and permits expulsion on the other 
hand. To be consistent the state should provide 
places to which suspended pupils can be removed, 
and not turn them loose upon the streets, which to 
many boys is no punishment. 

A boy was suspended from school for gross indecency. 
After a few weeks his father came before the school 
board and asked that the boy be readmitted. He 
said, ''My boy has no mother, my housekeeper can- 
not control him, and I must be at business all day. 
If he does not behave, whip him, but do not turn 
him on the street. That is no punishment for him." 
The boy was readmitted and within two days com- 
mitted a like offense, only more indecent than the 
first. His teacher took him into a room by himself 
and- said, ''You are looking for another vacation, 
aren't you?" "Yes," replied the boy, "suspend me 
if you want to." The teacher took a strap to him, 
much to the boy's astonishment. It was most salutary 
and effected a perfect cure. 

5. Corporal punishment, — In the old-time school 
there was abundant use of the rod and often brutality 
was practiced. This led to the enactment of laws in 
many cities and states prohibiting corporal punish- 
ment. There is no doubt that school punishments 
are more humane than formerly, and surely the order 
is better. One no longer hears of the big boys clubbing 
together to throw the schoolmaster out of the window. 
This is not owing altogether to the legal restrictions 
in using the rod, for the same result is manifest also 



io8 teaching: its aims and methods 

where there are no restrictions. Teachers are better 
trained, more intelligent, and therefore more liable to 
command the respect of pupils. Besides, school au- 
thorities are giving better support to the teachers in 
matters of discipline, and public sentiment condemns 
rowdyism in the school. The increase in the number 
of women teachers also has its effect, as boys, who 
would have little compunction in making trouble for 
a man, are instinctively too chivalrous to resist a 
woman. The decrease in the number of rural schools 
has had its effect. Not long ago from 60 to 80 pupils 
of all ages from 4 to 21 were crowded together in one 
room under one teacher. Now the older pupils are 
sent to the town school, and the number of children 
in the rural communities has greatly diminished. All 
of these things tend to make discipline easier, and the 
necessity for harsh methods has disappeared. 

While it is true that such brutal practices have dis- 
appeared from the schools, every teacher knows that 
corporal punishment has not disappeared, even where 
it is forbidden. It may be well to define what we 
meant by this term. I quote from a former state 
superintendent of public schools, who interprets its 
meaning as follows: "Corporal punishment as defined 
in the school law is as follows: Corporal punishment 
is any form of punishment by means of which physical 
pain is inflicted. It includes the physical discomfort 
or weariness caused by any unusual and sustained 
posture, as well as the infliction of pain by the hand 
or by the use of a whip, rule, or rattan." Under this 
interpretation there are few teachers who do not resort 
to some form of corporal punishment. Not long ago 



THE MAINTENANCE OF ORDER IO9 

a boy was sent to a Brooklyn principal for discipline. 
The principal took hold of the boy's arm, and while 
the boy was receiving a gentle lecture from his prin- 
cipal, I noticed that he winced with pain from the 
squeezing his arm was getting, and yet, corporal pun- 
ishment has been prohibited in that city for more than 
a quarter of a century. 

There is no doubt that legal restrictions as to 
corporal punishment have led to evasions of the law 
and to the adoption of many forms of punishment 
that are more unnatural, unreasonable, and even less 
humane than the old type. Think of young children 
being subjected to bitter sarcasm, which blights and 
withers, to various forms of degradation, to violations 
of their self-respect, and to real cruelties. What 
parent would not prefer that his child should be sub- 
jected to a proper whipping than to such humiliating 
forms of punishment? This is no advocacy of a return 
to former brutal practices. I think that the teacher 
should be allowed the same right that the parent 
possesses under the law. For surely the teacher, by 
education, by experience in managing children, and 
by humane tendency, is as fully competent to meet 
this responsibility as the great majority of parents 
are. 

While the use of the rod under rigid restrictions 
should be permitted, any teacher that cannot control 
her school without frequent resort to it had better 
resign. Its use should be exceedingly rare, and only 
for some such reason as that heretofore mentioned 
(page 107). For its abuse, I would have the teacher 
called to a rigid account. I am thoroughly convinced 



no teaching: its aims and methods 

that upon this basis there would be less corporal 
punishment in the schools than at present; discipline 
would be easier and more natural, as well as more 
humane; the teacher would not be constantly com- 
pelled to evade a law which it is impossible to carry 
out in spirit; and the children would learn the lesson 
of strict obedience to law which is so sadly lacking. 
I am pleading for less severity, less cruelty, less false 
practice in discipline, and more sympathy, more hu- 
manity, more real understanding of the child nature. 

In conclusion, school discipline should be easy and 
natural, should be kept in the background, and should 
aim to bring the children to self-control and self- 
direction. And this ideal finds its fullest expression 
in that American citizenship which it is the duty of 
the school to train. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE ART OF QUESTIONING 

The method of instruction in the elementary school 
is largely that of question and answer. Text-books 
were formerly almost wholly based upon that idea. 
Thus geography began with the question, ''What is 
geography?" Answer, "Geography is the description 
of the earth's surface." ''Of what is the earth com- 
posed?" Answer, "The earth is composed of land and 
water," etc. This method required no particular skill 
on the part of the teacher, who merely read the ques- 
tions out of the book, and saw to it that the answer 
given agreed with the one in the book. Mere ability 
to read on the part of the teacher and ability to 
memorize on the part of the children was all that was 
necessary. 

I was once present at an exercise conducted by the 
principal of a normal school. He was "hearing" a 
class recite in civil government. From a list of mem- 
bers of the class, which he had in a little book, he called 
upon a student to stand. Then from a text-book he 
read a question w^hich was answered verbatim from 
the book. After marking the result in his book he 
called up another student, read the next question, 
got his answer, and made a record as before. The ex- 
ercise proceeded on this plan until the end. It re- 
quired no pedagogical skill, — anyone that could read 



112 teaching: its aims and methods 

could have conducted the exercise, — did not provoke a 
bit of discussion, awakened no interest, and was 
entirely devoid of educational stimulus. There was 
not a particle of teaching; it was purely perfunc- 
tory. It was merely ^'hearing" the lesson. Think 
of young people going out with their diploma 
as qualified teachers with the deadening influence 
of such an example from the highest ofScial of their 
school. 

The Text-book in the Recitation. — Owing to the 
general lack of pedagogical training among the great 
body of teachers in former times, doubtless the pub- 
lishers best met the situation by text-books of the 
character described, for it must be said that publishers 
of school books are alert to meet the needs of the 
schools. It is natural that the commercial standpoint 
should dominate their activities; nevertheless, they 
have done a great deal to foster and further educational 
reform and progress. It is not so long ago that 
institute conductors and educational reformers began 
to advocate the exclusion of the text-book from the 
hands of the teacher during the recitation, at least 
that she should not be a slave to its question and 
answer plan. It was urged that the teacher should 
teach the subject rather than the text-hook; that she 
should possess such a mastery of the subject to be 
taught that the questions should flow from her fullness 
of knowledge; that she should be so free in her ques- 
tions that both teacher and pupils should forget the 
existence of the text-book. Such teaching makes the 
recitation a really Hve and interesting exercise rather 
than the mere hearing of the lesson. Teachers re- 



THE ART OF QUESTIONING II3 

garded this innovation with distrust, especially the 
older ones, who had comfortably rested upon the 
simple and easy plan of taking everything from 
the book as law and gospel, and expecting from their 
pupils nothing but what was found therein. Such a 
plan required little preparation or study, and stimulated 
no progress on the part of the teachers. The new 
method was the beginning of a tremendous educational 
awakening. It required teachers to be prepared, it 
made the subject interesting, it awakened the pupils, 
it stimulated thought in both teachers and pupils, it 
gave greater freedom, it recognized an educational 
science, and it crowded the text-book into the back- 
ground. 

Colonel Francis W. Parker was the foremost leader in 
this m.ovement. In his speeches and writings he ad- 
vocated the reform, and at Quincy, Mass., he demon- 
strated the practicability of his ideas. He attracted 
the attention of the teachers over all the land, and the 
"Quincy Methods '* became celebrated. Critics ques- 
tioned the success of his work when measured by 
ordinary school standards; but when the children of 
Quincy were subjected to the regular county exami- 
nations with the other schools, they passed from ten 
to forty per cent higher than the average of the county 
in the various subjects. Colonel Parker's work wonder- 
fully stimulated educational progress throughout the 
United States, and his name will ever be held in 
grateful remembrance as one of the greatest educators 
that this country has produced. 

In the earlier stages of the movement the text-book 
was abolished from many schools, but later a saner 



114 teaching: its aims and methods 

view prevailed, in which the reconstructed text-book 
was accepted as a guide and an aid rather than as a 
master slavishly to be followed. The text-book in 
most school subjects clearly has a place in the school. 
It is the accumulated results of the experience of wise 
teachers; it furnishes a practical and sequential order 
of procedure; it saves the teacher a great deal of time 
by its accumulated facts; it represents the progress 
in educational affairs, so that the teachers of today 
may start where their predecessors leave off. They 
start "On the shoulders of the human race," as Rosen- 
kranz puts it. The text-book is especially necessary for 
the large number of untrained teachers that we still 
have. It will always be used as a guide and helper 
to the teachers and as an aid to the pupils, but its 
use in the recitation should be limited. 

The Socratic Method of Questioning. — The great 
Athenian philosopher and teacher gave to the world 
a method peculiarly his own and which bears his name. 
This method was dialectic; that is, it consisted of 
questions and answers with logical sequence. It is 
true that most of his Cjuestions could be answered by 
"Yes" and "No," but his questions stim^ulated thought 
and awakened interest; in short, they led by a skilful 
system of reasoning to the truth that the master had 
in mind from the first and was seeking to teach. 
They admitted of no guesswork, but required the 
keenest intellectual insight on the part of both 
Socrates and his hearers, who were compelled by the 
irresistible logic of the questions finally to an ac- 
knowledgment of the truth. 

Some have falsely interpreted the Socratic Method 



THE ART OF QUESTIONING II5 

to mean any system of questioning which requires 
only monosyllabic answers. A college president 
boasted that his method was Socratic. The following 
illustrates his method. The subject was ethics, with 
the sophomore class. Question. ^'Mr. Jones, ethics 
has to do with man's relation to his fellowman, has 
it not?" Ans. ''Yes, sir." Question. ''Mr. Wilson, 
should a man respect the rights of his neighbor?" 
Ans. "Yes, sir." Question. "Mr. Johnson, is decep- 
tion ever justifiable?" As this question admits of 
either answer, Mr. Johnson guesses "No," thinking 
that was the answer expected. "Correct; a lie is never 
justifiable," solemnly announces the president. And 
so the farce goes on, and if a student made a wrong 
answer the pained expression of his instructor led him 
quickly to change his answer, to the relief of both 
parties. A good guesser could hit the right answer 
half the time, perhaps more, and therefore it is easy 
to see that those students did very little study in the 
subject of ethics. If there had been real instruction, 
the students would have gotten something out of the 
study during the recitation, even if they did little 
studying. As it was, the time was utterly wasted. 
A quotation from Socrates himself will perhaps be the 
best illustration of his method.^ 

Socrates. "Consider then; does it not appear to 
you to have been rightly settled that we ought not to 
respect all the opinions of men, but some we should 
and others not? Nor yet the opinions of all men, but 

1 This selection is taken from "Crito, or the Duty of a Citizen." It 
is necessarily incomplete, but the purpose here is merely to illustrate the 
Socratic Method. 



ii6 teaching: its aims and methods 

of some we should, and of others not? What say you? 
Is this not rightly resolved?" 

Crito. ''It is." 

Socrates. ''Therefore, we should respect the good, 
but not the bad?" 

Crito. "Yes." 

Socrates. "And are not the good those of the 
wise, and the bad those of the foolish?" 

Crito. "How can it be otherwise?" 

Socrates. "Come, then; how again were the fol- 
lowing points settled? Does a man who practices 
gymnastic exercises, and applies himself to them, pay 
attention to the praise and censure and opinion of 
everyone, or that of one man only who happens to 
be a physician or a teacher of the exercises?" 

Crito. "Of that one only." 

Socrates. "He ought, therefore, to fear the cen- 
surers and covet the praises of that one, but not 
more of the multitude?" 

Crito. "Clearly." 

Socrates. "He ought, therefore, so to practice and 
exercise himself, and to eat and drink, as seems fitting 
to the one who presides and knows, rather than to 
all others together?" 

Crito. "It is so." 

Socrates. "Well, then, if he disobeys the one, and 
disregards his opinion and praise, but respects that of 
the multitude and of those who know nothing, will 
he not suffer some evil?" 

Crito. "How should he not?" 

Socrates. "But what is this evil? Whither does it 
tend, and on what part of him that disobeys will it fall?" 



THE ART OF QUESTIONING Il7 

Crito, ^Xlearly on his body, for this it ruins." 

Socrates. "You say well. The case is the same too, 
Crito, with all other things, not to go through them 
all. With respect, then, to things just and unjust, 
base and honorable, good and evil, about which we 
are now consulting, ought we to follow the opinion 
of the multitude, and to respect it, or that of one, if 
there is anyone who understands, whom wc ought to 
reverence and respect rather than all others together? 
And if we do not obey him, shall we not corrupt and 
injure that part of ourselves which becomes better by 
justice, but is ruined by injustice? Or is this nothing?" 

Crito. "I agree with you, Socrates." 

Socrates. ''Come, then; if we destroy that which 
becomes better by what is wholesome, but is impaired 
by what is unwholesome, through being persuaded by 
those who do not understand, can we enjoy life when 
that is impaired? And this is the body we are speak- 
ing of, is it not?" 

Crito. ''Yes." 

Socrates. "Can we, then, enjoy life with a diseased 
and impaired body?" 

Crito. "By no means." 

Socrates. "But can we enjoy life when that is im- 
paired which injustice ruins, but justice benefits? Or 
do we think that to be of less value than the body, 
whatever part of us it may be, about which injustice 
and justice are concerned?" 

Crito. "By no means." 

Socrates. "But of more value?" 

Crito. "Much more." 

Socrates. "We must not, then, my excellent friend, 



ii8 teaching: its aims and methods 

so much regard what the multitude will say of us, but 
what he will say who understands the just and the 
unjust; the one even truth itself. So that at first 
you did not set out with a right principle, when you 
laid it down that we ought to regard the opinion of 
the multitude with respect to things just and honorable 
and good, and their contraries. However, someone 
may say, are not the multitude able to put us to 
death?" 

Crito. ^'This, too, is clear, Socrates; anyone might 
say so." 

Socrates. "You say truly. But, my admirable 
friend, this principle which we have just discussed 
appears to me to be the same as it was before. And 
consider this, moreover, whether it still holds good with 
us or not, that we are not to be anxious about Hving, 
but about living well." 

Crito. ''It does hold good." 

Socrates. "And does this hold good or not, that 
to live well and honorably and justly are the same 
thing?" 

Crito. "It does." 

This example of Socratic teaching shows that while 
the answers are short, they indicate that the disciple 
has an intelligent conception of the lesson taught, and 
that he is gradually being led into a knowledge of the 
truth in the master's mind from the beginning. Thus 
to lead the pupil is the height of pedagogical skill in 
the art of questioning. 

The Characteristics of Good Questions. — Sound ques- 
tioning depends wholly upon three factors, — the teacher, 
the lesson, and the pupil, — and the wise teacher will 



THE ART OF QUESTIONING IIQ 

adapt the question to the needs of the children. In 
general, the question is used in the recitation to ana- 
lyze the knowledge of the children into its elements 
in order to freshen its full meaning, to help the student 
to secure a clear understanding of rules and principles, 
to drill the student after new knowledge has been 
presented, and finally, to test his grasp of this new 
knowledge. A few rules for questioning may be 
suggested. 

I. The qicestions should he simple. — The questions 
should be plain and clear, so that the pupil may under- 
stand exactly what is wanted. It is the instructor's 
business to put the questions in such a manner and 
in such language that the pupils do not have to puzzle 
over them. Their whole attention should be given 
to the truths or facts to be brought out. Every bit 
of attention or strength devoted to the solution of the 
puzzle involved in the obscure question is just so much 
attention and strength withdrawn from the main 
thing, which is the grasping of the knowledge that the 
teacher is seeking to impart. 

Making the questions simple does not mean that 
they are devoid of thought. It simply means that 
they are to be brought down to the immediate com- 
prehension of those to be taught. Simplicity does not 
necessarily mean foolishness or want of power. Some 
of the greatest men that have lived have been noted 
for the simplicity of their lives and of the language 
they used. To use obscure language is an evidence of 
obscure vision and a lack of mastery of the theme 
treated, whether in thought or in writing. The Great 
Teacher employed the simplest language, and by parable 



120 teaching: its aims and methods 

and other happy illustrations He brought His sublime 
truths down to the understanding of His disciples and 
the multitudes who followed Him. 

It is related that Helen Keller once took an exami- 
nation in which the questions were written in a different 
system of characters for the blind than that to which 
she was accustomed. In a word, before she could begin 
to answer the questions she was obliged to cipher 
out the signs in order to understand what was re- 
quired. It was almost as if one who knew only the 
English language were given a set of questions in some 
foreign tongue. Instead of giving her whole attention 
to the theme in which she was being examined, and 
for which alone she would be marked, she had to 
waste her time and strength in finding out what was 
wanted. It is worthy of note that this marvelous 
woman succeeded in passing the examination, but the 
fact remains that she was unfairly handicapped. 

Whether it be in an examination or in a daily recita- 
tion, it is the duty of the teacher to put the questions 
so that they may be readily understood. Otherwise 
the teacher herself is lacking in pedagogical skill and 
is answerable for failures. Every teacher, therefore, 
should devote careful study to the art of framing 
questions which will be concise and clear, well within 
the comprehension of the pupils, and which will show 
a definite aim that she has had in mind from the first. 

2. The questions should he given in logical sequence. 
— With a final end in view, the teacher should lead 
up step by step, from the simple to the complex, from 
the easy to the difficult, from the concrete to the 
abstract; from the particular to the general. I have 



THE ART OF QUESTIONING 121 

shown elsewhere that the goal to seek in teaching is 
the abstract notion. From the outset the teacher has 
a definite purpose in every recitation of which she 
never loses sight. That purpose will be best at- 
tained if the various steps are sequential. Every 
recitation should start at the point where in a previous 
lesson the pupils left off. Hence there should be a 
brief review of this previous lesson, in order to fix that 
and to prepare the pupils for the new material. The 
blacksmith heats the end of both pieces of steel that 
he wishes to weld into one piece. After both are 
heated to a molten state, he claps the ends together, 
and a few blows unite the two pieces into one. If 
both are not so heated, no amount of hammering will 
cause them to weld. So it is with teaching. The 
old must be heated up, as it were, and then the new 
may be bound to it. Call this by any name you will, — 
the apperceptive process, the association of ideas, or 
the logical procedure, — it is the vital and essential 
method and without it teaching cannot be successful. 

Having recalled the old and brought it vividly to the 
front, the next step is to proceed to the new that is 
nearest related. The following may be taken as an 
example of sequential questioning. The theme is the 
battle of Trenton. By review, the discouraging con- 
dition of the American cause had been made clear. 
Washington's retreat across New Jersey had been 
described and the exultation of the British shown. 
Cornwallis had sent dispatches to England that the 
war was over. With the situation clearly understood 
by the class, the order of questioning might be as 
follows: — Question. ''Where was the American army?" 



122 teaching: its aims and methods 

Ans. "The American army was encamped on the 
Pennsylvania side of the Delaware, a few miles above 
Trenton." Question. ''Where was the British army?" 
Ans. ''The main body of the British army was at 
Princeton, and a detachment of their allies, the 
Hessians, was quartered at Trenton." Question. 
"What did Washington resolve upon?" Ans. "Wash- 
ington decided to strike a blow at Trenton." Ques- 
tion. "What course did he pursue?" Ans. "He 
crossed the Delaware during the night of December 
25, 1776, marched in two columns upon Trenton, and 
attacked the enemy in the early morning of the 26th." 
Question. "Who commanded the Hessians?" Ans. 
"Colonel Rail." Question. "What was the situation 
in Trenton?" Ans. "The Hessians, thinking them- 
selves secure, had given themselves up to Christmas 
festivities." Question. "What was the result of the 
battle?" Ans. "The surprise was complete and a 
great victory was gained. Colonel Rail was killed and 
1000 Hessians were taken prisoners." Question. 
"What was the effect of this victory upon the American 
cause?" Ans. "It revived the spirits of our patriots 
and proved to be the turning-point in the Revolution." 
Of course in the development of this lesson with chil- 
dren, many more questions than those above given 
must be asked. This, however, illustrates the sequen- 
tial order of procedure. 

3. The questions shmdd aim to discover the knowl- 
edge possessed. — It is true that inability to answer 
questions will reveal to the teacher the ignorance of 
the pupils. But I take it that this is not the main 
purpose of questioning. "A fool can ask questions 



THE ART OF QUESTIONING 1 23 

that a wise man cannot answer" is a well-known say- 
ing. The teacher has in mind the facts that she de- 
sires her pupils to possess. She has previously assigned 
the lesson, given the necessary explanation of it, and 
made definitely clear just what is desired. She has 
especially indicated where the material is to be found 
in case research is expected. Too careful attention 
cannot be paid to this last point, especially with young 
children. Much time is wasted and many pupils 
flounder in their study because they do not know ex- 
actly what is wanted nor where to find it. Book and 
page should be specified, so that the attention can be 
wholly devoted to the study of the thing desired. 
With the preparation which such study should give, 
the teacher may then question the pupils upon the 
lesson. It is her duty to discover how attentive the 
pupils have been to the instruction she has given and 
how faithfully they have performed the task assigned. 
She may ask: '^How much time have you spent on 
this lesson?", but that will be no final test of faith- 
fulness or of intelligence in study. For a pupil may 
spend time dilly-dallying over the task without accom- 
plishing anything. He should be taught to concentrate 
his efforts and get the lesson as soon as he can, pro- 
vided he gets it thoroughly. 

What the pupils know is the thing the teacher must 
find out by questioning. To attempt to discover what 
they do not know is too large a task for finite minds, 
for what we know is brought within very circum- 
scribed limits, while what we do not know is boundless. 
Why attempt the impossible? Find out what the 
children know of the subject in hand, what is on the 



124 teaching: its aims and methods 

borderland of their knowledge, what are the things of 
which perhaps they have caught only glimpses, but 
do not attempt to fathom the great universe which 
lies beyond their horizon If the questioning is well 
done, the pupils will have the satisfaction of mastery 
gained over some things and will also be made eager 
to know the mysterious things that have been hinted 
at and of which they have caught interesting glimpses. 
Such an attitude on the part of the teacher will not 
discourage pupils who although they have done their 
best have yet failed. It will show them wherein they 
have come short and what they must do to win future 
victories. 

I desire to emphasize this viewpoint, for it is vital 
to good teaching. The purpose of the recitation is not 
to see how many of the class you can find deficient 
in knowledge, but it is rather to build up, to strengthen, 
to fix, to give confidence, to add to the sum of the 
pupils' knowledge. To prove that the pupils do not 
know the lesson does not show good teaching. Thirty- 
two out of thirty-five juniors in a college class in 
algebra failed in an examination. There is no es- 
caping one of two alternatives; either the teaching 
had been faulty or the questions were too hard. In 
either case the fault lay with the professor, for with 
good teaching and fair questions there could never 
have been so large a proportion of failures. The 
majority at least of any class should be able to do the 
work given them. If the teacher finds that most of 
her class cannot master the work, it is evident that 
there should be a change in the method employed, in 
the material offered, or a change of teachers. 



Tlffi ART OF QUESTIONING 1 25 

4. The question should demand a full answer in a 
complete sentence. — Generally speaking, the teacher 
should require a complete statement in the answers 
of her pupils. This method requires thought, fixes 
the material, holds the attention, tends to establish 
the continuity of the theme, and prevents mere book- 
ish answers. Besides this, it affords an excellent train- 
ing in the use of language. An example of this 
method may be given as follows: Question. '^ Where 
is the Hudson River?" Ans. ^^The Hudson River 
is in the eastern part of New York State." Question. 
''Into what bay does it flow?" Ans. "It flows into 
New York Bay." Question. ''What great city is 
located at its mouth?" Ans. "New York City is 
located at its mouth." Question. "Why should a 
great city grow up at this point?" Ans. "A great 
city would develop because of the splendid bay at the 
mouth, the Hudson on the one side, and the East 
River on the other." Of course in drawing out the 
last answer, the teacher has discussed the importance 
of water communication in the locahty of cities, the 
Erie Canal and Hudson River opening up the great 
West directly to New York, and the connection of the 
East River with Long Island Sound and the East, 
etc. This is a part of the teaching of geography. I 
am not outhning a scheme of teaching geography, but 
rather illustrating a method of questioning. 

While in general full statements should be required 
of the children, there are times when this becomes 
stilted and perfunctory. In rapid work, as in reviews, 
brief answers may be accepted. The art requires good 
judgment on the part of the teacher, common sense, 



126 teaching: its aims and methods 

and the ability to vary the method so as to keep up 
the interest. In general full statements should be re- 
quired, but this should not always be strictly adhered to. 

5. The questions lead to new knowledge. — While the 
first purpose, as we have just seen, is to find out 
what the pupils know, the recitation that does no more 
than that is faulty. By skilful questioning the teacher 
will bring up new knowledge. Teaching involves both 
testing the acquirement of old knowledge and instruct- 
ing in the new. There is no doubt that the mere 
questioning of the class has a measure of instruction 
in it, for the pupils learn through hearing others recite, 
and the very act of reciting deepens and clarifies the 
knowledge of the pupil himself. Children learn a 
great deal from one another, not only in their sports, 
but also in the schoolroom. The eager and wise stu- 
dent is most alert and gives his most concentrated 
attention to his studies during the recitation. If he 
is keenly attentive to whatever the instructor presents, 
he ought to gain such a mastery of the subject in hand 
that his outside study will consist largely in clarifying, 
verifying, extending, and fixing what the classroom 
has offered him. I can give no stronger advice to the 
student than this: Give your best efort to the work 
offered in the classroom. 

German teachers possess wonderful skill in the art 
of questioning, since great stress is laid upon this 
pedagogical feature in their normal school training. 
They present a theme to the pupils and then question 
in all the details, so that when the period of instruc- 
tion is over the pupils have practically mastered the 
lesson. As a consequence but little home-study is 



THE ART OF QUESTIONING 1 27 

required or necessary. The pupils have no alternate 
periods of study and recitation, as is common in 
American schools, nor do they have much home-work. 
''How much home-work do you expect of your pupils?" 
was asked of a German teacher of an elementary 
school. ''Not more than fifteen minutes a day for the 
little folks and not over an hour for the higher classes," 
was the reply. From our standpoint it was a mystery 
how the children learned their lessons. I discovered 
the answer to be simple enough after visiting many 
German schools. They learn through the instructor, 
by means of the remarkable manner of questioning. Old 
knowledge is sifted, clarified, and fixed, while new and 
related knowledge is added to it. I have shown else- 
where (pages 20, 140) that this plan has its drawbacks 
in that possibly it makes the child too dependent upon 
the teacher, too little inclined to help himself, and fails 
to give him the desire and ability to go on with his 
education after he leaves school. But it is certainly 
very effective in accomplishing what it sets out to do, 
namely, to give a complete mastery of the subject 
which the teacher presents. 

The ideal will be reached when, by whatever method 
employed, we have inspired the pupil with a desire 
for further knowledge and taught him how and where 
to find it. When this ideal has been reached in a boy's 
education, we have done our best for him. His edu- 
cation will be well begun, and when he leaves school 
he will be able to continue it wherever he may be and 
whatever may be his condition in life. 

6. The questions should be of such a nature as to 
provoke thought. — Possibly this idea has been brought 



128 teaching: its aims and methods 

out in former discussions. It is so important, how- 
ever, that a further consideration may be advisable. 
We have seen that ''Yes" and "No" answers may be 
mere guesswork and furnish no evidence of thought. 
The whole purpose of teaching is to lead pupils to 
think, and the recitation that has failed to stimulate 
I lie thought activity may be considered seriously 
(k'fective. In the recitation in history described on 
page 138, we hnd a simple memory exercise with no 
arousing of thought concerning the past events of 
the world and their relation to the life of man. Hence, 
as an example of teaching it was a failure. No sub- 
ject offers better material to set the pupils thinking 
than history. 'Hie study of the causes of great events, 
of their effects ui)()n the progress of the race, and of 
the results that follow, calls for thought. Unless 
thought is stimulated, there is little use in studying 
history. 

After all, it is the poivcr to think that prepares men to 
meet emergencies, that advances one man over another 
in any field of life, that solves difficult problems, that 
insures success, that makes men great. 

Every exercise in the school should stimulate think- 
ing. The teacher that awakens interest in things so 
that they are talked about among the children and 
in the home, that sets the pui)ils searching libraries, 
observing and investigating the phenomena of nature, 
in a word, that arouses the mental powers, — such a 
teacher has discovered the vital principle of success in 
her calling. Thus the art of questioning becomes the 
most important acquisition in the teaching of children. 



CHAPTER VIII 

GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING 

Progress in Methods. — There is a disposition on the 
part of young teachers to perpetuate the methods by 
which they were taught in childhood. Even a course 
in a normal school which teaches the latest and 
standard methods often fails to eliminate this tendency. 
''Did you learn these methods in the normal school?" 
was asked of a recent graduate by the county superin- 
tendent upon his first visit. ''No/' was the reply; 
"that is the way I was taught as a child." Now it 
does not follow that old methods are always wrong, 
or that new methods are always right. There are many 
thoughtful persons, and educators among them, who 
seriously question many modern methods and who 
are by no means prepared to discard all that is old. 
But the study of psychology in recent years and its 
appHcation to education is beginning to furnish a 
sound basis for teaching and to establish educational 
practice. The old-time school undertook but little, 
but what it attempted to do was done thoroughly. 
Drill, drill, drill was the watchword of the old school- 
master, a watchword that has all too much fallen 
out of the vocabulary of the modern teacher. To 
learn a few things well is infinitely better than to get 
a smattering of many things. 

But there has been great progress in educational 



130 TEACHING: ITS AIMS AND METHODS 

method. In 1843, Horace Mann, then Secretary of the 
Massachusetts Board of Education, went to Europe, 
where he studied the schools of England, France, 
Switzerland, and Germany. He was especially im- 
pressed with the methods employed in the schools of 
Prussia. Upon his return to America he published 
his celebrated Seventh Annual Report, which has 
become ah educational classic. He attacked in this 
memorable report in a very forcible way the teaching 
of reading by the ABC method. He showed that this 
method had been abolished in Germany more than 
twenty years before and strongly advocated the word 
method in its stead. Mann's report was vigorously 
attacked by teachers everywhere, and especially by 
the thirty-one masters of the Boston schools. ''They 
thought that old-fashioned spelling was right and 
should be continued; that the only method by which 
children could be taught to read was the old-fashioned 
ABC method." Modern psychology has forever 
settled this question. The child can see and grasp 
the whole word, which carries an idea with it, sooner 
than he can grasp a letter, which alone does not stand 
for an idea. Probably these virulent attacks em- 
bittered Mr. Mann and influenced his withdrawal 
from public school service. Colonel Parker, in speaking 
of the work of these critics, says, "They were so far 
successful that the great reforms urged by Mann were 
kept out of the schools of Massachusetts, and, to a 
great extent, out of the schools of the whole country, 
for over fifty years." 

The schools of Switzerland and Germany that Mr. 
Mann visited were feeling the impulse of the great 



GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING 131 

Pestalozzian movement, and the introduction of the 
reforms instituted by Pestalozzi was the first serious 
attempt ever made in this country to make teaching 
systematic. Horace Mann was greatly aided by the 
normal school movement which had just started in 
New England, and which spread over the whole coun- 
try. The establishment of a normal school is a recog- 
nition of the necessity for trained teachers, which, in 
turn, implies scientific method. 

1 . The Oswego Normal School. — The early normal 
schools, however, were compelled to devote most of 
their time to academic work, as the students who came 
to them were wanting in fundamental knowledge. 
They had to be taught reading, arithmetic, geography, 
history, etc., before any attempt at professional train- 
ing could be undertaken. Oswego Normal School was 
the first to lay stress upon "method teaching," it 
having brought to its faculty Hermann Kriisi, whose 
father had been a colaborer with Pestalozzi himself. 
Pestalozzian methods attracted wide attention to Os- 
wego, and her graduates were in great demand as 
exponents of the new ideas. 

2. The Quincy methods. — The next great movement 
to improve methods of teaching was that inaugurated 
by Colonel Francis W. Parker at Quincy, Mass. This 
movement drew visitors from all parts of the country 
in great numbers, was discussed in educational papers 
and at teachers' meetings, and created a deep im- 
pression. It is probable that the Quincy movement 
did more to advance primary education in this country 
than any other influence that has been exerted since 
public schools were founded. Indeed no other move- 



132 teaching: its aims and methods 

ment since the time of Horace Mann has exerted so 
great, so permanent, and so salutary an influence upon 
American education. Colonel Parker, like Horace Mann, 
had spent some time in studying German education. 
Both men possessed an open mind ready to receive, 
absorb, and adopt any means of an educational advance, 
wherever found. 

3. The Herbartian movement. — At the close of the 
nineteenth century a fourth movement, the Her- 
bartian, also of German inspiration, was started. 
This was inaugurated in 1892, when a body of men who 
had recently studied pedagogy in the German universi- 
ties, met and launched the movement by founding the 
Herbart Society for the study of education, and by 
publishing a translation of Karl Lange's "Appercep- 
tion." To the Herbartians we owe an interpretation 
of the meaning of apperception, a better correlation 
of the subjects of the curriculum, greater emphasis 
upon the moral aim of education, and the bringing 
of the study of the problems of education to a scien- 
tific basis. Another important feature of the work of 
this society, however, has been its discussions in the 
field of methodology.^ All these movements have 
tended to place educational practice on a more scien- 
tific basis. 

What is Method? — Method may be defined as the 
selection of proper material and the adaptation of it to 
the needs of the pupil. Method is certainly something 
more than mere manner of doing, though Pestalozzi 
says, "Only have a proper method, and you will be 

* See the works of De Garmo, the McMurrys, and others of this school. 



GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING I33 

surprised at the amount children learn in a single 
day." And Diesterweg adds, ''The typical power of 
the teacher lies in his method." But back of this, 
preceding the presentation, there must be a wise 
choice as to Vv^hat subject-matter is to be learned. 
No skilful manipulation, no pleasing manner, no 
happy gift of presentation, no mere power of interest- 
ing children, however essential all these may be, can 
be a substitute for lack of knowledge of subject-matter. 
No genius in the art of teaching will sufhce if there 
is ignorance in regard to the material that is suited 
to the wants of the child. Hence the teacher must 
not only know how the child mind is developed, but 
also must be grounded herself in the fundamentals. 
She must be able to eliminate the unsuited, even 
though it may be offered in the text-book. Method 
work in the teachers' training school does not consist 
in giving typical lessons which the students are bhndly 
to imitate, but rather it consists in teaching them to 
estimate the needs and capacities of the child and 
how to suit the material to those needs. 

The Teacher's Personality. — The personality of the 
teacher has much to do with his method, and he who 
tries to teach like a Socrates, a Pestalozzi, a Mark 
Hopkins, or any other instructor whom he may ad- 
mire, is likely to fail. A great teacher may suggest 
an idea as to method and therefore be worthy of 
study, but in the final analysis, no one can reach high- 
est success in teaching unless he exemplifies his own 
personaHty. The wise superintendent recognizes this 
and therefore does not dictate to his teachers as to 
their method unless the method employed is mani- 



134 teaching: its aims and methods 

festly unsound and unpedagogical. He lets each one 
work out his own salvation and is sa,tisfied if proper 
results are secured. 

The Essentials of Method. — There are three things 
essential to a good method: namely, (i) A knowledge 
of subject-matter; (2) A knowledge of how the mind 
develops; and (3) A knowledge of how to present the 
material. The child must be consciously present. No 
matter how well articulated and logical the method, 
no matter how enthusiastic the teacher may be, there 
can be no instruction unless the child is interested. 
And the subject-matter chosen is very important in 
securing this interest. Rosenkranz wisely remarks, 
''But the subject must be adapted to the conscious- 
ness of the pupil, and here the order of procedure and 
exposition depend upon the stage which he has reached 
intellectually, for the special manner of instruction 
must be conditioned by this. If he is in the stage of 
sense-perception, we must use the illustrative method; 
if in the stage of image-conception, that of com- 
bination; and if in the stage of thinking, that of 
demonstration. The first exhibits the object directly, 
or some representation of it; the second considers it 
according to the different possibilities which exist in it, 
and turns it around on all sides (and examines its 
relation to other things); the third demonstrates the 
necessity of the relations in which it stands either 
with itself or with others. This is the natural order 
from the standpoint of the developing intelligence: 
first, the object is presented to the perception; then 
combination with other things shows its different 
phases; and, finally, the thinking activity circum- 



GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING 135 

scribes the restlessly moving reflection by the idea of 
necessity." 

The best method serves its purpose only through a 
capable person who carries it out with intelKgence and 
zeal. A model teacher without a well-digested method 
is inconceivable. Without personality method is but 
cold formality. It must be warmed by the enthusiasm 
of a living teacher. Method must not be a formal 
process by which the teacher measures every act. 
This makes method the master rather than the servant 
and guide. Imbued with educational theory, possessed 
of sufhcient general knowledge, acquainted with the 
laws of mental development, the teacher will not go 
astray, but will be able to adapt her method to chang- 
ing conditions and to individual pupils. The teacher 
is free only when she is no longer obliged to measure 
every act by fixed formulas, when she is not bound 
by some stereotyped method, but, when inspired by 
the underlying principles of teaching, she meets each 
situation as it arises and brings to her pupils the 
right material in the right way. 

Different Methods of Instruction. — To bring the 
subject to a direct and practical basis let us consider 
various methods. 

I. Oral work. — With little children the method of 
approach will be almost wholly oral. Children love to 
listen and to talk themselves. Hence there must be 
constant interchange of ideas by means of questions 
and answers, by stories, and by conversation. If 
children are not allowed to take a large part in every 
exercise, their interest will wane. Many things can 
be learned in no other way, and the appHcation of this 



136 teaching: its aims and methods 

truth is especially necessary with young children. 
The child learns to write by writing, to speak by 
speaking, to read by reading, to construct by working 
with his hands, to think by thinking. Hence it is 
obvious that children must be active participants in 
the recitation or it will be a failure. Every teacher 
should frequently ask herself, ''Have I done too much 
talking?" It is so much easier to get over work by 
telling the children rather than to develop the lesson by 
skilful questioning. What would one think of a master 
mechanic lecturing to his apprentice concerning a trade 
instead of putting tools into his hands and setting 
him at work? Children must be given opportunity to 
employ the knowledge they already have and skilfully 
led from the field of the known into the unknown. 

A caution may be given at this point. If allowed 
to do so, children who are fond of talking will roam 
over all creation. They must be held to the subject in 
hand just as the teacher must "stick to the text." 
Then, too, there must be frequent repetition and re- 
view. One of the advantages of the old-fashioned 
school was its thoroughness, attained through many 
repetitions. While there was waste in this practice, 
nevertheless many important lessons were so well 
learned that they were never forgotten in later life. 
It is to be feared that the modern graded school has 
gone to the opposite extreme, and that therefore, 
without sufficient repetition, much of its work is 
forgotten. The curriculum marks off a certain part of 
work which must be completed in a given time. 
Each teacher naturally attends to the phase of work 
specified for her grade. And so the pupil is pushed on 



GENERAL METHODS OP TEACHING 137 

from teacher to teacher and from grade to grade. 
Unless there be a wise and watchful principal to guide 
the work, there will be lack of continuity and thor- 
oughness. There should be frequent reviews, reaching 
back over previous work, repeating sufhciently to fix 
the subject-matter and unite it into one complete 
whole. With older children oral work trains them to 
speak while on their feet, to use good language, and 
to think connectedly. 

2. Written work. — As the children advance, there 
are many subjects that can be presented topically. 
While the oral method will be continued, the pupils 
must be trained to take a topic and treat it in its com- 
pleteness. This can best be done in writing, although 
the training in connected oral expression must not be 
neglected. Some subjects, such as history, geography, 
nature study, and language work lend themselves 
to topical treatment more than others. There are but 
few persons in this country, of whatever rank, who are 
not called upon at some time in life to make a speech. 
We are a nation of public speakers, and this fact applies 
to those in social, business, political, and religious life. 
To express one's self in writing or orally is a necessary 
accomplishment and a part of one's education. The 
public school must not lose sight of this requirement 
in training the chldren for life. Topical discussions 
lend themselves peculiarly to this end. They teach 
clearness of thought, logical presentation, good diction, 
and therefore conscious mastery. They train a pupil 
to think out a subject in all its bearings. They 
teach the pupil to discriminate between the essential 
and the non-essential, and furnish the teacher an 



138 teaching: its aims and methods 

opportunity to criticise both thought and language. 
While this work will be both oral and written, the 
latter has a wide scope in topical treatment, since the 
whole class can work simultaneously, since more careful 
thought and expression may be demanded, and because 
the pupils can be held to stricter account. Thus the 
pupil is trained to express himself in his own language 
and can be detected if his work is a mere memory 
exercise. 

Teachers often have a false notion as to what 
really constitutes a topical treatment. I once witnessed 
a lesson in history supposed to be conducted by the 
topical method. The teacher opened his text-book 
and said to the first pupil, ''You may begin." The 
pupil arose and recited the first paragraph word for 
word. "Correct," said the teacher, ''excepting that 
you omitted the word awe?." He then called upon the 
next pupil to recite the following paragraph. The pu- 
pil arose and said, "I cannot remember how the verse 
begins." The teacher started him on the way with the 
first few words and he was able to glide through the 
"verse" and was marked ten. Not a word of criti- 
cism was made excepting such as was purely mechani- 
cal, nothing was said about the real meaning of the 
lesson, no attempt was made to connect the facts of 
history or to show how they had anything to do with 
the life of man. It was a "recitation" pure and simple, 
and there was not a particle of teaching in the whole 
lesson. It was simply a memory exercise, and of course 
was not a topical treatment. The topical method calls 
for independent thinking, for the expression of one's 
knowledge clearly and connectedly, for ability to con- 



GENERAL METHODS OE TEACHING 1 39 

sider the theme as a whole, for complete mastery of 
the thought. It admits of no guessing, such as is 
possible in some forms of questioning and answering. 
For these reasons, so soon as pupils are able to write 
connectedly, topical themes in tests and examinations 
are fairer and more satisfactory. Topical work, there- 
fore, should be both oral and written; oral, because 
it trains the pupil to think and express himself con- 
nectedly on his feet, and written, because it develops 
the power to gain a complete mastery of a subject 
and furnishes an opportunity to show it. 

3. The lecture method. — German teachers employ 
the lecture method, not only in the university but also 
in the elementary school, much more than is common 
with us. Text-books are very few, as I have already 
shown. The teacher tells his pupils what he desires 
them to know and then questions upon what he has 
told them. For example, I witnessed a lesson in his- 
tory in which the battle of Jena was the theme. The 
teacher told the story of Napoleon's march into Ger- 
many and Frederick WiHiam Ill's advance to meet 
him on the heights above the old university town. He 
described the alignment of troops, the attack, the over- 
whelming defeat of the Prussian forces, the retreat, 
and the final consequences to the unhappy people. 
With maps he showed the positions of the opposing 
forces and called attention to the genius of Napoleon 
in selecting an advantageous position and in directing 
the battle. It was a masterly, scientific, and complete 
analysis of this crucial battle. The teacher was thor- 
oughly acquainted with his subject. After completing 
the account, the teacher questioned his pupils upon the 



I40 teaching: its aims and methods 

points he had touched. The interest was intense, for 
the portrayal had been vivid, and it was remarkable 
how well the children had mastered the lesson. His- 
tory lends itself to this method of instruction, and the 
battle of Jena is a peculiarly striking theme to illus- 
trate this fact. But a similar plan is followed with all 
other subjects. Little home-work is required or is 
necessary, as the pupils learn the subject through the 
teaching of it, as we have seen. 

American teachers make comparatively little use of 
the lecture method in the elementary school, depend- 
ing more upon text-books. In determining which of 
these practices is the better, it must be admitted that 
the German child, after eight years' schooling, is pos- 
sessed of many more facts and has a more thorough 
knowledge of subject-matter than the American child 
of the same age. This is due in part to the method of 
instruction employed, and in part to the superiority 
of the teaching force, as all German teachers are pro- 
fessionally trained, while only a small part of the 
American teachers are so trained. More facts can 
be imparted, and in a shorter time, by the lecture 
method than by any other. For this reason teachers 
are often tempted to tell the pupils rather than to lead 
them to find out for themselves. 

Admitting that the German child of fourteen has 
more knowledge than the American child of the same 
age, we may ask. Does he have more power? Can 
he use that knowledge better? Is he better fitted 
to cope with life's problems? Is he more likely to 
continue to advance in knowledge? In answering 
these vital questions, I would say that unquestionably 



GENERAL METHODS OE TEACHING 14I 

the American child has the advantage. ''Will your 
boys go on with their educational growth after they 
leave school?" I once asked a Berlin principal. 
His unhesitating answer was, ''No." "Why not?" 
I asked. "It is a question of bread and butter with 
them. They must go to work as soon as they leave 
school and will have no time for further study," was 
his reply. "Do you think that is the whole reason?" I 
pursued. "Well, what do you think?" he finally 
asked. I replied that by the German method of in- 
struction the child comes to rely wholly upon his 
teacher for information. He is not taught to investi- 
gate and find out things for himself. He does not know 
how to go to books for information. After he has 
left school and no longer has his source of information, 
his teacher, at hand, he ceases to gain knowledge, and 
indeed goes backward intellectually. My friend ad- 
mitted the force of the argument. The German school 
system is seeking to meet this obvious defect by estab- 
lishing continuation schools to follow the eight-year 
course, in which the children are offered an oppor- 
tunity to supplement and extend their previous work. 
The American common school seeks not only to 
give the child knowledge, but also power. It seeks 
to put him in the way to help himself after he leaves 
school, by giving him the desire to use and to extend 
the knowledge he has gained. If the school succeeds 
in creating a love for knowledge and a desire for its 
acquisition, it does more for the child than if it fills 
him with the facts of history, science, mathematics, or 
stuffs him with Hterature and art, and yet fails to give 
him the power of intelligent self-direction and initiation. 



14^ teaching: its aims and methods 

While the lecture method is unsuited to the elemen- 
tary grades, in the high school it may be properly 
employed in some subjects, and in the college and 
university it becomes the principal method of instruc- 
tion. In these institutions the learners have gained 
the power of self-direction, and the advantages of this 
method may properly be utilized. These advantages 
may be summarized as follows: (i) Knowledge can be 
imparted more rapidly, as has already been shown. 
(2) The teacher can take the students into fields that 
may not be treated in text-books. (3) He may select 
his material to suit his own ideals. (4) It offers 
opportunity for original investigation. (5) It allows 
concentration upon a limited field when desired. (6) 
It permits the teacher to become a specialist. Students 
seek universities, especially in England, France, and 
Germany, where great speciaHsts are found who lecture 
upon themes that mark the advance of the world's 
thought and learning. 

4. The inductive method} — There are two general 
methods of approach to knowledge, the inductive and 
the deductive. It is to Francis Bacon that we are 
indebted for the inductive method, though Macaulay 
gives Httle credit to Bacon for this discovery, inasmuch 
as this method "has been practiced ever since the be- 
ginning of the world by every human being," nor was 
he the "first person who correctly analyzed that 
method and explained its uses," as Aristotle had done 
so long before. It would be unjust to withhold from 
Bacon the credit for a great discovery on these grounds, 

^ See Smith's "Systematic Methodology" for a complete treatment of 
the inductive and other methods. 



GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING 143 

for this reasoning would exclude Franklin and Harvey 
and Pasteur and Edison from credit as discoverers. 
The discovery of the inductive method has changed 
methods of teaching and is of inestimable value to 
mankind. De Garmo says/ ''What Francis Bacon 
called the new method is in sharp contrast to the old 
method of the middle ages, when men were concerned 
not so much in estabhshing principles as they were in 
drawing conclusions from admitted premises. The 
difficulty of using the old method as one of research 
was that it assumed or accepted from authority the 
principles from which it reasoned, whereas the great 
need of the new natural sciences was that all these old 
principles should be verified, and that new ones should 
be established through inductive research by means 
of observation, experiment, hypothesis, and analogy. 
Bacon very properly rejected the old deductive method 
as utterly impotent and barren in the new field." 

The watchwords of this method are experiment, 
investigate, verify. And the promulgation of these 
ideas has led to the establishment of laboratories in 
schools of all kinds and in many factories. It has 
also instigated the founding and endowment of insti- 
tutions for research, which are already yielding remark- 
able fruits for the alleviation of suffering and for the 
benefit of the human race. 

The inductive method starts with individual things, 
and by comparison, noticing likenesses and differences, 
arrives at general notions. "The immediate purpose 
of induction," remarks De Garmo, ''is of course the 
derivation of a rule or principle, the establishment of 

"Principles of Secondary Education." Vol. II, p. 76. 



144 teaching: its aims and methods 

a class, or the discovery of a cause or effect. In other 
words, the goal of an inductive is a generalization, a 
classification, or a causal relation." An an illustra- 
tion, take the study of arithmetic. Formerly the 
teacher's direction to a class was, ''Learn the defini- 
tions and rules and then see if you can work the ex- 
amples." The inductive process would require the 
examples to be worked first and finally the rule to 
be evolved. The teacher should first give simple 
problems, then harder ones, until the pupils are famil- 
iar with the process. Then they should be required 
to tell in their own language how they worked the 
problems, and fmally they should commit to memory 
the rule as a formal addition to their sum of knowledge. 

If approached in this way by the inductive process, 
the rule will be comprehended, whereas it would be 
meaningless if learned at the outset. This last step 
is important, as it fixes the principles in the minds of 
the children and gives them norms or formulas correctly 
stated, which will serve as fundamental guides in 
accurate thinking and in practical life. 

5. TJie deductive method. — This method starts out 
with generalizations, — laws, principles, rules, defi- 
nitions, and proceeds to the individual application. 
Thus, committing rules in arithmetic as preliminary to 
solving problems, learning definitions in geography or 
grammar and applying them later, studying botany 
out of the text-book rather than in the fields at first 
hand, taking statements from a book on physiology 
instead of considering the human body itself, are ex- 
amples of the deductive method. 

Some subjects can best be approached by the indue- 



GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING 145 

tive and some by the deductive method. The wise 
teacher will adapt herself to each child and each sub- 
ject, sometimes employing one method and sometimes 
another. In general, with young children the method 
is to advance from the concrete to the abstract, from 
the simple to the complex, from the individual to the 
general. With older pupils there may be a wider 
employment of generalizations. It may be remarked 
that the presentation of a subject by a variety of meth- 
ods tends to deepen and fix the lesson in the minds 
of the children. The peculiarities of individual pupils, 
the personahty of the teacher, and the characteristics 
of the subject itself must all be taken into account. 
In conclusion, let me say the teacher must not be a 
slave to method. She should have the subject-matter 
so thoroughly in hand, should be so filled with the 
inspiration of teaching, should so understand the child 
mind and its development, that method becomes an 
unconscious instrument by means of which she presents 
the truth naturally, logically, forcefully, and completely, 
so as to leave deep and lasting impressions. 



CHAPTER IX 

AIMS AND METHODS IN READING 

It is not the intention here to give an exhaustive 
treatment of the methods to be employed in teaching 
the subjects of the elementary school. For such treat- 
ment the reader is referred to special works on these 
subjects.^ I shall attempt to point out the aim to 
be sought in each subject and to add some practical 
suggestions as to method. The purpose is to give 
assistance to the young teacher, who, perhaps, has had 
but little preparation for teaching and not much expe- 
rience, is possessed of but few books to guide her, has 
no one at hand to counsel her, a.nd yet is eagerly 
seeking light upon the great problems of the school- 
room. Therefore I shall take up the various subjects 
of the elementary course and throw light upon the 
manner of teaching them. 

Aims in Reading. — The most important subject 
of the school course is reading. It is the first subject 
taught in point of time, and the child's progress in 
this is the best and most manifest sign of his advance- 
ment to both teacher and parents. It is the key to 
educational success, and it opens the door to future 
knowledge. It is essential, not only to school progress, 

^ McMurry has a series of books on "Special Methods" in each of the 
common school branches. See also his "General Method," De Garmo's 
"Essentials of Method," and Smith's "Systematic Methodology." 



AIMS AND METHODS IN READING I47 

but also to future self-improvement. It is the most 
fertile means of gaining knowledge of the world's 
activities, and the past and present are recalled to the 
mind of the eager student through its means. He who 
cannot read is excluded from the enjoyment of litera- 
ture, history, science, and the current events of the 
world revealed through the medium of newspapers, 
magazines, and books. Nothing in the school course 
is of such utility and furnishes such lasting means of 
enjoyment as reading. It must therefore naturally 
come first in the school in point of time. 

The two-fold purpose that the teacher must have in 
mind in teaching reading is to give the children a 
knowledge of the form of the words and of their 
content, or the ideas that they express. Under form 
we include correct articulation and pronunciation, 
proper inflection, and emphasis. The child must learn 
to pronounce the word at sight correctly and with 
clear articulation. He must know the word as a whole 
at a glance and without the necessity of spelling it out. 
The grasping of the meaning of the word must accom- 
pany the recognition of its form. Whether the form 
or the content of the word is first grasped is a disputed 
point. In most cases they are comprehended prac- 
tically simultaneously. The child has mastered form 
only when he has acquired a natural, fluent, clear, and 
accurate pronunciation. The test of this will be found 
in the rendering of the sentence as a whole, with proper 
inflections and emphasis, so as to make the thought 
clear to the hearer. Natural and pleasant expression 
can be obtained only when the child himself compre- 
hends the thought, which he in turn gives to others 



148 teaching: its aims and methods 

in the form of reading. The teacher must take great 
pains to secure accuracy in producing every sound. 
Many teachers devote a great deal of time to phonic 
drill, which produces excellent results. 

While the mechanical difficulties are being overcome, 
the content, or thought side of reading, by far the more 
important feature, is also receiving due attention. 
There is little value in the mere calling of words with- 
out understanding. If the child catches the thought, 
reading becomes a form of ''telling," and he will tell 
the story naturally and with good expression. Thus 
will disappear the painful droning so common under 
the old methods. In order to furnish plenty of thought 
material and to keep children interested in what they 
read, there are numerous supplementary reading books, 
in addition to the regular text-books, which are suitable 
for the different grades, and the purpose of which is 
to give practice in reading and at the same time to 
store the mind with new ideas. The old method called 
for constant and painful repetition of the same pieces, 
and consequently interest soon waned. Publishers 
have placed many of the finest gems of literature in 
suitable form and within reasonable cost, so that they 
are available for the ordinary classroom. Thus, while 
the child is learning to read, he is also storing his mind 
with the rich treasures of his mother tongue and begin- 
ning to acquire a good taste. Herein lies a great 
opportunity for the teacher. It is as easy to form good 
habits in reading as it is to form bad ones; to create 
a taste for the pure and noble as to create a taste for 
the vile. And the teacher, fortunately, lives in an 
age when suitable material is abundant. Children of 



AIMS AND METHODS IN READING I49 

a former generation were obliged to read "dime- 
novels" or nothing. Now they can be offered just 
as interesting stories, free from impure suggestion and 
false notions of life, and these, too, for a dime or even 
a nickel.^ Such reading will not only furnish the child 
with much enjoyment, but will also largely influence 
his character. In this early period, when the memory 
is quick and retentive, the child will learn many gems 
of literature which will forever be a source of joy and 
intellectual inspiration. 

To recapitulate, then, the aim to be sought in read- 
ing on the formal side is the ability to read distinctly, 
fluently, and with correct pronunciation, inflection, 
emphasis, and understanding, so as to convey the mean- 
ing to others. Secondly, on the content side, it is 
to create a good literary taste through the use of the 
works of the great masters of English and to give some 
knowledge of these works. These two aims, should 
ever be in the mind of the teacher, neither one neg- 
lected for the other and both carried forward simul- 
taneously. 

Methods in Reading. — Various methods have 
been employed in teaching, reaching from the old 
ABC method to the most modern scheme. By the 
ABC method the child first learned his letters, then 
words of two or three letters, then larger words. Little 
attention was paid to the meaning of words; indeed, 
combinations were taught that had no meaning what- 
ever, as ba, bi, bo, bu, etc. It was mere form without 
content, and the children wearily droned over these 
sounds monotonously and painfully. No wonder that 

^ The Five-cent and Ten-cent Classics oflfer such material. 



150 teaching: its aims and methods 

they escaped from school whenever they could. In the 
more advanced classes sometimes the teacher set the 
class at reading while he assisted the others with their 
sums. Horace Mann showed the fallacy of the ABC 
method, as we have seen, and then followed the gradual 
adoption of the word method in which the word is 
taken as the unit. This was an approach to the truth, 
as the child can see and grasp a word quicker than he 
can comprehend one of the letters forming the word. 
The words selected were not necessarily confined to 
those of one syllable or short words, as had been the 
custom. It was recognized that the child can compre- 
hend the word express-wagon " as easily as he can 
comprehend the word '' top, " and the selection in the 
reading lesson was made with reference to the things 
with which the child is familiar. The word was illus- 
trated by objects or pictures, the wonderful advance 
in the art of pictorial illustration being freely utilized. 

The next step in the historical development of read- 
ing methods was the adoption of the sentence as the 
unit, as it was recognized that one in reading does 
not look at the letters that comprise the words, nor 
at the words themselves necessarily, but at the sen- 
tence as a whole, which conveys the thought. It is 
the thought that is sought in reading, and one does 
not stop to look at the words unless they are unusual 
or unknown. In this case the reader must give atten- 
tion to the individual word, must spell it, analyze it, 
and seek its meaning. Hence he must know his letters, 
must be taught syllabication and made familiar with 
roots. With the sentence grasped as a whole, atten- 
tion may be given to the thought-content, which 



AIMS AND METHODS IN READING 151 

we have seen is the important feature of reading, the 
expression becomes natural and easy, and the old-time 
monotonous calling of words without regard to sense 
disappears. No method of reading is good that fails 
to have as its supreme purpose the gaining of thought. 
It may be confidently asserted that if the child has 
the thought, the expression will largely take care of 
itself, and reading will be to the child mere ''telling," 
as already shown. 

General Suggestions. — It is not the purpose here to 
exploit any of the modern systems of reading that are 
offered to teachers. I am endeavoring to establish 
fundamental principles which must be followed, what- 
ever system of reading may be adopted. A few general 
suggestions, however, may be offered. 

I . Clearness. — There should be continual practice 
to secure accurate and clear pronunciation. The 
vowels and the consonants, and the combinations of 
both, should have constant drill. An English father 
who was wholly unconscious of his use of the letter 
"h," heard his children practicing the vowels and, 
consonants from their school work in phonics, and for 
the first time he recognized his faulty pronunciation. 
After a little practice of the same work that his chil- 
dren were doing, he fully cured himself of his defect. 

Repeated drills, constant correction, and everlasting 
repetition secure wonderful accuracy of pronunciation 
and clearness of speech. This is the key to success in 
reading from the standpoint of form. 

Especial care should be taken to correct provincial- 
isms. Such atrocious pronunciations as ''caow," for 
cow, ''haow," for how, ''raound," for round, and the 



152 teaching: its aims and methods 

flat ^'a" in such words as have, dance, fancy, etc., 
should be rigidly corrected. The teacher has a duty 
in this respect which has been quite inadequately 
appreciated. Our striking provincial pronunciations 
often subject Americans to ridicule. This evil can be 
corrected if the great body of teachers will seriously 
take it in hand, for the teacher shapes the future of 
any people, "it is the school master that has won 
our victories," declared von Moltke after the Franco- 
Prussian war, and surely upon him rests the responsi- 
bility of teaching correct expression. 

2. Naturalness. — We have seen that the child is 
likely to read naturally if he understands the thought. 
In order to give him the thought, show him an object 
or picture and lead him to talk about it. Modern 
reading books are wonderfully adapted to the work of 
furnishing subject-matter that children can understand 
and talk about. It is a long step from the ''Orbis 
Pictus" of Comenius to the beautifully illustrated 
reading book of today. It is easy to lead the child 
to understand that the word "boy" placed beneath 
the picture of a boy is only another means of represent- 
ing the idea. He can also be led to tell the story 
suggested by the picture in the words of the book 
which he is reading. There is little Hkelihood of the 
child's being unnatural if he has caught the thought. 

3. Accuracy. — The child should not be allowed to 
guess or recite from memory. I have known children 
to read from a book, page after page of material that 
they have been over several times, and they could 
"read" just as well with the book upside down. The 
pictures aided them to remember what the page con- 



AIMS AND METHODS IN READING 1 53 

tained, and they glibly recited from memory without 
reading at all. To correct this the teacher must have 
some mechanical drill-work, such as picking out sep- 
arate words or sentences to test what the child really 
knows. The employment of supplementary reading 
books, so that the child is not obliged to go over the 
same work until he has learned it by heart, is the best 
means of preventing this tendency. 

4. Selection of inaterial. — Text-books in reading are 
admirably meeting the demand for suitable mate- 
rial. They are properly arranged and well illustrated. 
They are offering to children the gems of English, put 
into such form and so adapted as to meet the needs 
of the various ages. From children's stories, suited to 
the primary grades, the child is led step by step into 
the realms of the best literature that the language 
contains. In this field the teacher of reading has a 
wonderful opportunity to store the minds of her pupils 
with beautiful thoughts and noble ideals. It has 
already been shown that there is an abundance of 
such material, and these books should be freely placed 
into the children's hands, in order that they may exer- 
cise their newly-acquired attainment. In all the school 
activities there is no more efficient means of character- 
building or of preparing the human being to appre- 
ciate and enjoy life than that which reading furnishes. 

5. Training in thinking. — The child learns to read 
in order that he may think. For this reason much 
stress must be laid upon the content side of reading, 
and yet the formal side must not be neglected. We 
repeat that the child must be able to read intelli- 
gibly, so that others can understand. But one reads 



154 teaching: its aims and methods 

aloud comparatively little. Most of one's reading is 
for the purpose of gaining the thought. Therefore 
the essential work of reading is to train in thought- 
getting. In the early stages the child should be taught 
to scan the sentence from beginning to end to get its 
meaning, and when he is ready to render it he should 
not be interrupted till he is through. Interruptions 
are likely to attract attention to mere form, while the 
object is to get the content. Let the criticisms and 
suggestions come at the end, so as not to disturb the 
continuity of thought. I have seen a reading exercise 
in which each pupil read until he made a mistake, 
which was promptly corrected by his classmates, 
and then another read on from that point. Of course 
this was a mere formal exercise without a particle of 
thinking. 

In conclusion, let me repeat that reading is the most 
important subject of the school course, that it should 
be most interesting and fruitful, and that great care 
should be exercised both in the choice of material and 
in the best method of presenting it. ''To teach a 
child to read, and not teach it what to read, is to put 
a dangerous weapon into its hands," says Charles 
Dudley Warner. 



CHAPTER X 

THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

Place of Spelling in the School. — The English lan- 
guage presents many difficulties in its orthography, 
because of its unphonetic character. Hence the school 
has a burdensome and yet most important duty to 
perform. Criticism of the modern school falls most 
heavily upon spelling, because errors in it are so appar- 
ent, and because its use is so frequent and necessary. 
I have already shown that there is less reason for such 
criticism than many would think. Nothing, however, 
is so inexcusable in written composition as poor spelling. 
No apology for the work of the school will suffice if 
it fails to teach the children to spell. 

A few years ago the exclusion of the spelling book 
from the schools was advocated by educational re- 
formers on the ground that many of the words found 
therein are but little used, and that isolated words 
without definitions do not become a part of one's 
usable vocabulary. It was urged that the child's 
spelling lessons should be selected from his reading 
book, arithmetic, grammar, etc., and from life, and that 
he should be required to spell only the words he uses. 
No doubt there was much to commend in the reforms 
proposed. There is little use in giving pupils words 
beyond their understanding, outside of their environ- 
ment, and of no practical value to them. It was also 



156 teaching: its aims and methods 

urged that formal spelling lessons are unnecessary, 
that the child should learn to spell in connection with 
his other lessons and thus build up a vocabulary of 
his own which he would unconsciously spell correctly. 

It was found as a result of this reform that spell- 
ing lacked system, that it was side-tracked for other 
subjects that had a fixed place in the curriculum and 
therefore received too little attention, that it was 
difficult for the teacher to select the right words, and 
that the children were not learning to spell. Conse- 
quently a reaction set in, and while the new methods 
of spelling were retained, a modernized spelling book 
was introduced which seeks to present in a systematized 
form the words essential and appropriate to the forma- 
tion of the vocabulary of the child. It became evident 
that spelling must have a place in the program of work, 
that it cannot be merely incidental, and that it must 
be considered as a serious matter. I shall try to indi- 
cate the means by which this important subject can 
be made to meet modern requirements. 

Aims in Teaching Spelling. — The aim sought is to 
give the child the ability to spell such words as he will 
employ in letter-writing, composition, or business 
practices. While occasionally he may be called upon 
to spell words orally that he would not commonly use, 
and while it may add to his satisfaction to be able 
to meet such tests, the school cannot be required to 
provide for such remote contingencies. If the school 
succeeds in training its pupils to spell accurately such 
words as they will use in any kind of original composi- 
tion, or in taking ordinary dictation, I think it will 
have met all just requirements in spelling. 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 1 57 

Methods and Devices. — Spelling is largely a 
memory exercise. This must not be lost sight of, what- 
ever method be employed. That which best fixes the 
form of the word in the child's mind is the best method. 
A teacher of fourth grade pupils almost entirely of 
foreign parentage, — Germans, Swedes, Danes, Hun- 
garians, and Italians, — who heard no English at home, 
secured remarkable results by the following method: 
She selected twenty words each day from the spelling 
book and from other sources, placed them on the black- 
board plainly written, explained their meaning, pro- 
nounced them, and required the children to pronounce 
them after her, calling attention to any peculiarities 
of the words. After thus going over the list several 
times, she had the pupils copy it. By this practice 
she appealed to the ear-minded and eye-minded as well. 
This is important, for some people catch a word by 
seeing it and others by hearing it expressed. She 
required the words to be written both separately and 
in sentences, to prove that the children had grasped 
their meaning. Previous lessons were frequently re- 
viewed, so that the words might not be forgotten. 
In spite of the handicaps of a scant knowledge of Eng- 
lish and no help at home, the children rarely missed 
in spelling. There were forty children in the class, 
who were given twenty words a day, or a total of 4000 
words per week, and usually there were not more than 
four or five misspelled words out of this number. In 
the reviews the children were called upon to use the 
words in sentences, which was a good test not only of 
the spelling but also of their comprehension of meanings 
of the words. 



158 teaching: its aims and methods 

The following suggestions are offered to aid in teach- 
ing spelling: 

1. Written and oral work. — A large part of the time 
should be devoted to written work, for the reason that 
nearly all the practical use of spelling is in the form of 
composition. The dictation of the lesson should be 
both written and oral, in order to meet the needs of 
the eye-minded and the ear-minded. Oral spelling, 
however, should not be neglected. There are occa- 
sions — rare, it is true — when it is important to be able 
to spell orally. It is well occasionally to have a spell- 
ing match, to allow the pupils to choose sides, to ''spell 
down," and to employ other devices in order to stimu- 
late enthusiasm for spelling and awaken a healthy 
rivalry among the pupils. These contests are enjoyed 
by children, and they aid in teaching oral spelling. In 
the written work the writing must be very plain and 
legible, the pupil being charged with an error when 
there is doubt as to the letter used. The papers should 
be corrected by the teacher, the errors marked, and 
individual attention called to them later. 

2. System. — While words from other lessons should 
be taught, there should be a systematic teaching of 
spelling, such as is outlined in a text-book on the sub- 
ject. Spelling must have a regular place in the daily 
program and should not be treated as incidental. It 
should be taught in connection with every school 
exercise, but should have also a specific place for itself. 

3. Drill. — The teacher must go over the words 
time and again, until the impression of them is thor- 
oughly fixed. Especial attention should be given to 
difficult and unusual words, and to those that are often 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 1 59 

misspelled. Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon 
frequent drill. 

4. Rules. — A few simple rules may be helpful, 
especially to older children, but little dependence can 
be put upon them to make good spellers. To apply 
them requires good judgment, and there are too many 
exceptions for the child to remember. Any text-book 
on spelling will offer such rules as the teacher may deem 
advisable to employ. 

5. Capitals and syllabication. — The use of capitals 
should be emphasized, and the child should be carefully 
taught how to divide words into their proper syllables, 
especially at the end of a line in composition. Word 
analysis, with its treatment of roots, derivations, pre- 
fixes, suffixes, etc., is a great aid in the teaching of 
spelling. 

6. Composition. — The best test of spelling is found 
in its use in composition. Hence the most of the work 
should consist in sentence or composition writing. It 
is of little use for a person to be able to spell a word 
individually if he cannot properly employ it in letter- 
writing or other composition. 

7. The dictionary. — The child should be taught early 
how to use the dictionary and how to seek its help 
in finding the spelling or meaning of a word. By 
its use the inherently weak speller may overcome 
this defect. A young man who was seeking advance- 
ment in the army was seriously handicapped by his 
poor spelling. He was not sure of himself with the 
most common and simple words. He purchased a 
pocket dictionary and systematically looked up every 
doubtful word that he wished to use. It was not long 



i6o teaching: its aims and methods 

before he overcame his weakness and successfully 
passed the required examination. 

The Spelling-Bee. — Among the historic educational 
practices of the past, the spelling-bee stands out 
most prominently. With so few entertainments to 
attract people, under the primitive conditions of country 
life, the announcement of a spelling-bee was sure to 
attract all the people that the schoolhouse could hold. 
Sides were chosen of such as would consent to spell, 
and the contestants were not by any means limited 
to the school children. Anyone could enter the lists 
who would. Words were given from side to side alter- 
nately, and if a word were missed and correctly spelled 
on the opposing side, a speller could be chosen over 
to the winning side. This continued until one side 
was victor. After this all stood up in a line to ''spell 
down," and he who was the last to succumb to a hard 
word was the hero of the evening. It was a mere 
memory test, as no meanings of words were given ex- 
cepting when two words of different meanings had the 
same pronunciation, as in the case of ''pair," a couple, 
and "pear," a fruit. Probably the chief good of these 
meetings was the amusement they afforded, rather than 
as a means of teaching spelling. For oral spelling has 
but little use in life, and many of the words given out 
were such as one would never use. 

But there has been a revival of the spelling-bee in 
many parts of the country in which the old people 
have been pitted against the children of the schools; 
and although the latter were meeting the former on 
their familiar ground, I do not know of an instance in 
which the children have not been victors. 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING l6l 

The best test of spelling, I repeat, is found in writing. 
One has only to read old letters or documents to dis- 
cover that this much vaunted gift was lacking in early 
times and that our forefathers were not good spellers. 
But this revival of the spelling-bee no doubt will aid 
materially in making better spellers, especially orally. 

As a final word, let me say that there is no excuse 
for poor spelling, and it is the duty of the teacher to 
send forth her pupils possessing this primary and 
essential qualification for life. If the school fails to 
do this, criticism of its work is entirely just and 
wholesome. 



CHAPTER XI 

TRAINING IN LANGUAGE 

Influence of the Environment. — It is claimed by- 
many that if the child is brought up in an environment 
where only correct English is used he will not need to 
study formal grammar. Undoubtedly such an experi- 
ence is of great aid, but comparatively few homes 
furnish such a condition. Even if the home is all that 
could be desired as an environment for children, it 
must be remembered that they associate with other 
children and must mingle with the world. In these 
associations naturally children will absorb incorrect 
forms of speech, in spite of the most careful home 
training. While the power properly to use one's 
mother tongue in speaking and writing, and that un- 
consciously, is of highest importance as an educational 
asset, this does not suffice, — one must know why an 
expression is right or wrong. Address a child of 
foreign parentage in the language of his forefathers, and 
it is very seldom that he will reply in that tongue. 
Possibly he is ashamed of his ancestry and does not 
want to be known as German, Italian, or Slav; nor 
is he sure of the purity of the language of his home. 
He has not studied its grammar, does not know what is 
correct, and consequently he will not use the language 
which he readily understands and speaks at home but 
of the correctness of which he is not sure. The high 



TRAINING IN LANGUAGE 1 63 

school student that has had a year or two of German 
will not hesitate to show his knowledge of that lan- 
guage when opportunity offers, because he has the con- 
fidence given by a scientific training in the grammar of 
that tongue. Therefore, even if the child has been 
accustomed to speak correctly at home, he must have 
training in grammatical forms. 

The fundamentals of language must be taught; that 
is, the child must know grammar as the basis of 
his English. Such knowledge will doubly fortify him, 
both in speech and in written composition. Of course 
the teacher must be vigilant, in season and out of 
season, in every subject taught, and from the very 
outset of the school course, to secure the habitual 
use of good English. Eternal vigilance, constant atten- 
tion, and patient correction of false expressions, when- 
ever seen or heard, should be the watchword of the 
teacher. Landon says, ''The study of grammar brings 
into relief and fixes in the pupil's mind a standard of 
accurate usage, fortifies him against the influence of 
bad examples by making clear the nature of wrong 
forms and faulty constructions, and renders his imita- 
tion of what is correct more certain, rapid, and in- 
telligent." Grammar is not only essential to the 
understanding and use of language, but it has also a 
great disciplinary value. It is educational as well as 
utilitarian. 

Aims in Language Training. — What is the aim to 
be sought in language teaching? In general, the an- 
swer would be that the aim is to establish the power to 
use the English tongue habitually, fluently, and accu- 
rately, both in speaking and in writing. This power 



i64 teaching: its aims and methods 

should become so completely habitual that even under 
unusual circumstances, such as examinations, tests, 
etc., correct language will unconsciously be employed. 
A second aim will in a measure be sought, namely, 
that of acquiring a knowledge of the language itself, 
and of the principles governing its formation. This 
aim can be reached to a considerable extent only with 
advanced students, especially students of philology. 
Hence the study of formal grammar should not be 
undertaken too early. Judgment and logical power 
are necessary to an understanding of this subject, and 
these powers develop in the late grammar grades. 

Methods. — When the child enters school at six 
years of age, he possesses a vocabulary of five or six 
hundred words, depending upon his early environment 
and his natural intelligence. The school must increase 
this vocabulary and teach its fluent and proper use. 
This is done by introducing suitable material and by 
calling upon the pupils for the expression of it in both 
oral and written form. It must be largely oral at first, 
the children being encouraged to tell stories and to 
dramatize. Modern schools are taking advantage of 
the natural tendency of children to act out their ideas 
in the form of a play or drama. It proves a very 
fertile means of awakening interest in reading and in 
language work as well. There should be very little 
writing by pupils in the first year or two. Indeed, 
some critics believe that the children are given too 
much writing all through the elementary school. 

Language Lessons. — White remarks that "All lan- 
guage training may be so united with the other exer- 
cises of the school, as to be a part of them, thus 



TRAINING IN LANGUAGE 1 65 

practically realizing the principle of concentration. This 
union is eminently practicable in the exercises in read- 
ing; the exercises in expression affording material for 
reading, and the development of reading lessons afford- 
ing fine practice in oral expression. Indeed, the telling 
of what one knows and feels and the reading of thought 
and feeling expressed in written language are but dif- 
ferent phases of the same mental process." He further 
adds, ''Every exercise of the primary school that leads 
to knowledge properly ends in the expression of such 
knowledge by the pupils. This is true of the lessons 
in nature, on human life, morals and manners, etc. 
When training in expression is the end, it is a mistake 
to let even the story-exercise end with the telling of 
the story by the teacher. This may interest and please 
the pupils, may make a desired impression, but the 
vital matter is reached when the story is related by the 
pupils. It is what the children can tell that is evidence 
of real appropriation. ' ' 

Realizing the importance of connecting language 
work with every school exercise, some urge that this 
will suffice, and that therefore there is no need of formal 
language work. Upon this point I quote again from 
Dr. White. ''The art of language is more difficult 
than reading or numerical computation, and it should 
certainly have as large a place in the elementary school. 
// should he a daily exercise. . . . What is needed is 
both incidental and regular training in expression, con- 
scientious language training all along the Hne. There 
is no danger that the important art of language will 
receive too much attention in school training." 

There is abundance of material at hand which is 



1 66 teaching: its aims and methods 

easy to adapt to the language work. Nature study, 
stories from the Bible, history and mythology, fairy 
tales, songs, poems, pictures, biographies, and the great 
variety of objects at hand offer an abundance of inter- 
esting material. Unfamiliar expressions should be 
avoided. The child should be allowed both to tell and 
to write. Composition will cease to be a bugbear if 
the pupil is allowed to write concerning a subject of 
which he knows something. To require a child to 
write on ^'Virtue," ''Patience," ''Perseverance," "Hap- 
piness," or other abstract themes, is to make him 
hate composition. Let him describe "A trip into the 
Country," "What I saw at the Fair," "A Picnic," 
or some other event or thing that has come within his 
experience, and he will love composition, for children 
love to tell what they know. Descriptions of animals, 
objects, and events not only serve as material for 
composition, but also tend to cultivate the power of 
accurate observation. Letter-writing with punctuation, 
capitalization, correct forms, accurate spelling and 
construction, should be emphasized at this stage. 
Dramatization will furnish fertile and interesting 
material for both oral and written expression. 

By these means the child will extend his vocabulary, 
enlarge his scope of ideas, and learn to use language 
correctly and fluently. Here again is the celebrated 
aphorism of Comenius — "We learn to do by doing" 
— justified and illustrated. The child will also gain 
some insight into the simpler forms of grammar, such 
as the parts of speech and the construction of simple 
sentences. Nor should the teacher hesitate to use the 
common grammatical terms. The child can learn to 



TRAINING IN LANGUAGE 1 67 

employ the term noun as easily as he can learn to 
employ the term name-word, the term verb as easily as 
action-word. 

Grammar. — Spencer declares, "As grammar was 
made after language, so ought it to be taught after 
language." Dr. White is of the opinion that "English 
grammar has an important function in school training, 
and no other study can take its place." The purpose 
of grammar is to furnish a standard whereby one may 
be sure as to the correctness of the English employed, 
whether spoken or written, and to systematize the 
forms of language, to develop the power of analytical 
judgment, to discipline the intellectual powers. Much 
of grammar is abstract, and therefore the study leads 
the pupil to abstract reasoning, the goal of educational 
endeavor. Because it is so largely abstract it is 
obvious that formal grammar should not be introduced 
too early in the school course. 

The inductive method should be employed in teach- 
ing grammar; that is, the child should be led up to 
the rule through many examples. When the rule is 
comprehended, it should be committed to memory. 
We are governed largely by rules of life if we are men 
of established habits, and in our intellectual life also 
it is well that we should be fortified with rules which 
summarize the truths that we possess and have assimi- 
lated. 

Sentences should be constructed not only to illustrate 
the rule, but they should also be analyzed and the 
application of the rule pointed out. Perhaps too great 
stress in former times was laid upon parsing. There is 
no doubt, however, that it did fix the parts of speech 



i68 teaching: its aims and methods 

and their relation to the sentence as a whole in the 
minds of the pupils. It required a constant applica- 
tion of rules, as every exercise closed with, ''According 
to the rule which says," etc. The pupil will now have 
a text-book on grammar in his hands, and under the 
wise direction of his teacher should find the subject 
interesting and profitable, thus acquiring the ability 
to use his mother tongue correctly, and, at the same 
time, becoming familiar with its fundamental principles 
while gaining a fluent mastery of it. 

Composition. — I have already touched upon composi- 
tion in the treatment of language lessons. It must go 
hand in hand with both language lessons and grammar. 
Landon clearly shows the purpose of composition in 
these words: ''The teaching of composition in school 
should be directed to secure the writing of plain straight- 
forward English prose, free from error or obscurity." 
Naturalness, simplicity, correctness, clearness, and 
force are the ends to be sought. All compositions 
should be carefully criticised by the teacher, and if 
possible discussed individually with the pupils. Such 
criticism should be of great value to the pupil. Indeed, 
composition work without such individual criticism 
largely loses its efficiency. 

As a final word, let me say the training in language 
should seek to give a fluent, accurate, and easy style, 
both in writing and in speaking, and it is therefore 
one of the most practical subjects taught in the whole 
curriculum. 



CHAPTER XII 

GEOGRAPHY TEACHING 

Scope of the Subject. — In the old text-books geog- 
raphy was defined as a description of the earth's surface. 
Consequently chief attention was given to fixing and 
memorizing the location on the map of rivers, bays, 
lakes, mountains, cities, etc. A truer conception of 
geography views the earth as the home of man, and 
emphasizes man in his relation to his environment as 
the central thought. ''According to the definition of 
geography, which treats of the relation between man 
and the earth, a hill or a lake is worthy of mention 
only because it bears a relation to us, the men upon 
the earth; considered by itself it is not a part of geog- 
raphy." Since man in his relation to his surroundings 
is the central idea, it becomes clear that home geog- 
raphy, the things immediately at hand, must be studied 
first. In that educational classic, ''The Report of the 
Committee of Fifteen," this matter is stated so com- 
pletely that I quote in full: "The child commences 
with what is nearest to his interests, and proceeds 
gradually towards what is to be studied for its own 
sake. It is therefore a mistake to suppose that the 
first phase of geography presented to the child should 
be the process of continent formation. He must begin 
with the natural differences of cHmate and lands, and 
waters, and obstacles that separate peoples, and study 



1 70 teaching: its aims and methods 

the methods by which man strives to equalize or 
overcome these difficulties by industry and commerce^ 
and make it possible for each to share in the produc- 
tions of all. The industrial and commercial idea is 
therefore the central idea in the study of geography in 
the elementary schools. It leads directly to the natural 
elements of difference in climate, soil, and productions, 
and also to those in race, religion, and political status, 
and occupations of inhabitants, with a view to explain- 
ing the grounds and reasons for this counter-process of 
civilization which struggles to overcome the differences. 
Next comes the deeper inquiry into the process of 
continent formation, the physical struggle between 
the process of upholding or upbuilding of continents 
and that of their obliteration by air and water; the 
explanation of mountains, valleys, and plains, volcanic 
action, and the rain distribution. But the study of 
cities, their location, the purposes they serve as collect- 
ing, manufacturing, and distributing centers, leads 
most directly to the immediate purpose of geography 
in the elementary school." 

Aims in Teaching Geography. — In the foregoing 
statement we find the aim in the study of geography 
outlined. A further consideration may, however, be 
profitable. President Butler says, ''As a bridge over 
which to pass backward and forward from the study 
of man's habitat to his activities and his limitations, 
and back again, geography is a unique and indis- 
pensable element of an elementary education. So 
treated, it is excelled in suggestiveness by none of its 
companion studies." 

Dr. McMurry, in his ''Special Method in Geog- 



GEOGRAPHY TEACHING 171 

raphy," marks out a distinctly geographical course 
from the third grade on. He remarks that " Geog- 
raphy from the beginning deals with a very interesting 
and valuable series of topics which the separate sciences 
do not attempt to treat. Geography has the double 
interest which attaches to natural objects and human 
beings. It deals with people in the midst of their 
physical, social, industrial, and political surroundings. 
Geography studies should be intensely practical and 
social in their influence, because in the industrial and 
commercial pursuits men are producing and distrib- 
uting those articles of mutual interchange and accom- 
modation by which they get better acquainted and 
learn to depend upon one another." 

He further suggests the following plan of study: 

(A) ''Home geography, with its excursions and varied 
study of local topography, occupations, and social life. 

(B) The leading topics of the United States and North 
America. This is a very interesting field of broad and 
varied studies, illustrating almost all phases of geo- 
graphical knowledge. (C) The important phases of 
European geography. While Europe is relatively a 
small part of the world, it has a greater number ' of 
valuable and instructive geographical topics than any 
other continent, due to the varieties of its physical 
structure, the many distinctly different nationalities 
it exhibits, and the higher degree of excellence attained 
in the arts of life. (D) The movement from Europe 
outward into the world-whole, — Asia, Africa, South 
America, Australia, — and the larger physical and com- 
mercial aspects of the whole world." 

Summarizing, then, as to the aim in teaching geog- 



172 teaching: its aims and methods 

raphy, wc would say in general that it should touch 
u\H)\\ those things that have to do with the life of 
mail, upon the products of the soil and the factory; 
u|)()n transportation by land and sea; upon climate and 
its effect upon vegetable growth, as well as upon the 
welfare of man; ui)on the natural resources in mines, 
soils, (piarries, forests, streams, etc.; upon cities and 
the reasons for Iheir hxation and existence; upon 
forms of government and their effect in protecting the 
liberties and stimulating the enterprise of a people 
and in promoting justice; and upon the religion of a 
jx'ople and its |)ower over men's lives to lead to 
righteous living. 

While learning these things, the pupil will also ac- 
(|uire all other necessary data, such as locations, bound- 
aries, and other geographical facts. There will be 
no dilTiculty in correlating the work in geography with 
other subjects of the curriculum. 

Methods in Geography Teaching. Home geog- 
raphy. As already suggested, the work in geography 
begins with a study of the child's immediate environ- 
ment. Very early, the child can be taught the direc- 
tions, east, west, north, and south. Beginning with 
the schoolroom he becomes familiar with the points 
of compass of the schoolgrounds and the immediate 
vicinity. No more important knowledge can be ac- 
quired than that which prepares one to locate himself 
upon either land or sea. Visitors in a strange city or 
country, as well as sailors upon the ocean, are sadly 
handicapped if they are unable to determine direc- 
tions. A party of boys from twelve to fourteen years 
old from Stoy's school in Jena were making a sevQn 



GEOGRAPHY TEACHING 1 73 

days' tramp through the Luther country in central 
(icrmany. One day after marching through the 
Thiiringian forest, so dense that not a glimpse of the 
sun had been obtained for several hours, they came 
into an open space on top of a mountain. The teacher 
gathered the boys about him, took out his watch, and 
announced the time as four p.m. ^' Which way is 
north?" he asked. The boys took a look at the sun's 
position in the heavens and every one pointed at once 
to the north. They then took out their pocket maps, 
located the place where they stood, faced towards 
the north holding their maps before them, and were 
able to identify the cities, villages, rivers, castles, 
mountains, valleys, in the wonderful panorama that lay 
within their vision. Ability to do this was the most 
important attainment they needed at that moment. 
It made them masters of the situation. Far more 
stress should be laid upon this simple and yet most 
important knowledge than is customary in the Ameri- 
can schools. 

Excursions. — In the study of home surroundings it 
is necessary to see the thing to be learned. Too often 
the child gets his conception of geography from the 
text-book and maps, sometimes even without much 
use of the latter. Some personal experiences may 
illustrate this point. As a boy, I learned from the 
book that ''A mountain is a high elevation of land," 
and I could locate the Rockies, the Alleghanies, the 
Catskills, the Andes, upon the map. And yet, I could 
not look out of a window in that old schoolhouse 
in any direction without being confronted with moun- 
tains; indeed, I could see a spur of the very Catskills 



174 teaching: its aims and methods 

that I knew in the book. There was not the sHghtest 
association between the book statements and the real 
mountain. ''A river is a stream of water flowing 
through the land," according to the book, but that had 
no reference to the creek where I fished, waded, and 
swam, and which was a part of the very Susquehanna 
that I could easily locate on the map but knew nothing 
about. And so it was with everything taught in geog- 
raphy. It was mere ^'recitation" from the book 
without reference to the real things that we could 
not escape if our attention had been guided and if 
we opened our eyes in any direction. 

The excursion should not be simply a wild picnic. 
It must have a definite purpose for which the pupils 
have prepared beforehand. The teacher should ex- 
plore the ground in advance, so as to know just what 
she will find and where to find it. The children 
should be made familiar with the subject-matter, so 
that they may be keen to observe and quick to com- 
prehend the lessons the teacher desires them to learn. 
They must understand that they are out for work and 
not for play. But while there will be plenty of en- 
joyment as they wander through the fields and woods, 
by the brooks, in the valley or ravine, in the midst of 
the glories of nature, yet there is a definite purpose 
which must not be lost sight of. They are still at 
school, though their schoolhouse is not hemmed in by 
four walls of plaster, but is boundless amid the beauties 
of God's wonderful nature. Such field trips should 
yield an abundance of first-hand information which 
later may be worked over and digested in many 
exercises of the schoolroom. 



GEOGRAPHY TEACHING 1 75 

Dr. White aptly remarks, ''There should be no haste 
to get the infant away from his little world of home. 
Let him observe and know its animals and birds, its 
trees and flowers, the sunshine, the rain, the clouds, 
the winds, etc., before he tries to fly beyond the 
horizon on the poor wings of words. . . . The teacher's 
guiding aim should be not only to develop the power 
and habit of geographical observation, but also to 
give the pupils a clear and accurate knowledge of 
primary ideas and facts, — to lay a sure foundation of 
geographical knowledge." 

The Elementary Course. — The knowledge thus gained 
forms an excellent groundwork for the more formal 
study of geography. The child is now ready for a 
text-book, supplemented by maps and globes. It 
must not be mere memory exercise, however. As the 
child learns the location of a city, he must also become 
acquainted with its industries, its institutions, etc. 
Descriptions of rivers from source to mouth must 
take into account the territory they drain, the cities 
on their banks, and their importance as arteries of 
trade and commerce. Mountain ranges have an effect 
upon cKmate, are obstacles to transportation, and are 
of interest on account of the rivers having their 
source in them. 

After gaining a knowledge of the topography of a 
country, — its mountains, its valleys, its plains, its 
elevations, its rivers, its lakes, its latitude, etc., the 
child can easily be led to conclusions as to what its 
productions and occupations m^ust be. He will also 
understand the reason for the location of cities and 
much concerning the inhabitants of the country. 



176 teaching: its aims and methods 

Thus he studies the earth as the abode of man, which, 
as we saw at the outset, is the province of geography. 
The child must be taught to read and understand the 
maps and globes. Map-drawing should be utilized as 
an important aid in the geography work. It is an 
excellent practice to have the class bring in an outline 
map of their own construction and locate upon it, under 
the direction of the teacher, the rivers, mountains, 
cities, etc. The corn, wheat, cotton, sugar, rice, and 
fruit belts can be indicated by different colors. The 
location of coal, iron, gold, petroleum, and other de- 
posits can be fixed. The great forest reserves can be 
marked and their importance to the river systems and 
their influence upon cHmate shown. This will fix the 
various geographical data in the minds of the children, 
and will relate the science to the life of man far better 
than a study of the text-book or of printed maps will 
be able to do. The shape of the earth, its poles, 
equator, meridians, latitude, longitude, the zones, etc., 
can best be taught by the use of the globe. 

McMurry says,^ ''Let it be observed first of all that 
geography, more than other studies, has domiciled itself 
among men in the midst of their homes and usual 
occupations. It walks directly into the market places, 
homes, factories, mines, and fields where men are at 
work. It observes, studies, and sympathizes with the 
labors, amusements, and hardships of the people as 
they are beset by climate and physical surroundings. 
Dealing with the actual conditions of life, it sees the 
true and necessary relations in which different de- 

1 "Special Method in Geography." McMurray offers an excellent 
course under the title, " A Course of Study Freely Outlined." 



GEOGRAPHY TEACHING 1 77 

partments of knowledge stand to one another. It 
finds that things widely separated in the studies of the 
schools are closely jostled together in life." 

Geography can be made one of the most democratic 
of all school studies and, at the same time, one of the 
most interesting and practical. But it must be consid- 
ered in its relation to life. There is no subject that 
naturally offers so much of real contact with life, and 
therefore there should be no difficulty in making it 
intensely interesting. The text-book must be kept in 
the background; when it is used at all, it must be 
employed as a servant to aid in vivifying the lessons 
that have been gained first-hand as far as may be from 
the study of the world immediately present. From 
these early lessons the study must reach out to that 
great world that is beyond the immediate vision and 
which cannot be visited. Thus all geography may be 
studied in its relation to the life of man. 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

Importance of History. — ''History," says Dr. Harris, 
''is a window of the soul that looks out upon the deeds 
of the race." Dr. Hinsdale defines history as follows: 
"In the broadest sense, history is the story of man 
living in social relations in the world, as traced in 
various records and memorials." 

It is of highest importance in a republic that all 
the people should be well informed concerning its 
history, its institutions, and its form of government. 
A despotism may survive even if the mass of its people 
are ignorant. But a self-governing people must be 
intelligent as well as patriotic, and familiar with the 
form of government under which they Hve and which 
they control. Commissioner Claxton shows in his 
report of 191 2 that the average attendance for all 
children throughout the United States is but little 
over five years of two hundred days each. It would 
be safe to assert that not more than one in five of the 
youth of the land ever reach the high school. If such 
be the case, the essential knowledge concerning citizen- 
ship for the people as a whole must be implanted in 
the elementary school. Hence the importance of his- 
tory as a subject in the common school course in pre- 
paring the boy and girl for the life that they must live. 

From the very nature of the subject history offers 



THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 1 79 

abundant and interesting material quite within the 
intellectual reach of young children. On this point 
Dr. McMurry remarks, ''This intelligent interest is 
awakened first of all by a lifelike picture of the personal 
fortunes of men like Daniel Boone, or David, or Alfred 
the Great. Such biographies open a highway into 
the struggles and dangers of communities and young 
nations. The life stories of inventors and benefactors 
like Stephenson, Fulton, and Peter Cooper, of Florence 
Nightingale, John Eliot, and William Penn, kindle 
social sympathies of lasting worth." Thus history 
becomes an excellent means of moral instruction. All 
children love stories, and this natural instinct can be 
utilized in fixing historical facts and in drawing the 
important lessons therefrom. The lives and deeds of 
great men will furnish centers around which important 
events and historical epochs can be made naturally 
to group, thus awakening patriotism, stimulating am- 
bition to live a noble life, and inculcating moral stand- 
ards. History can be made an efficient aid to school 
discipline in that it awakens a desire for right action, 
the fundamental principle of government. Quoting 
again from McMurry, "There are certain lofty char- 
acters, like Alfred the Great, Caesar, Charlemagne, 
Luther, Alexander, Isabella, Cromwell, and Napoleon, 
who have taught the world such commanding lessons 
that every child should have the chance to grasp in 
a few points the significance of their lives." 

From the nature of the subject it will be easy to 
adapt the material to the comprehension of the chil- 
dren to teach them lessons of the highest importance 
in life. Great emphasis should be placed upon such 



l8o TEACHING: ITS AIMS AND METHODS 

teaching at this time because, as already pointed out, 
it is the only opportunity that a large portion of the 
pupils will ever have to obtain this knowledge and 
receive this training. 

I. Aims and Values of the Subject. — Many teachers 
have no adequate conception of the purpose to be 
aimed at in the study of history. McMaster, in his 
great work, "A History of the People of the United 
States," has given such a comprehensive view of the 
aim to be sought in teaching history that I shall give 
it in full in order that teachers may have it for fre- 
quent reference: ''In the course of this narrative 
much, indeed, must be written of wars, conspiracies, 
and rebellions; of Presidents, of Congresses, of em- 
bassies, of treaties, of the ambition of political leaders 
in the senate-house, and of the rise of great parties 
in the nation, yet the history of the people shall be 
the chief theme. At every stage of the splendid prog- 
ress which separates the America of Washington and 
Adams from the America in which we live, it shall be 
my purpose to describe the dress, occupations, the 
amusements, the literary canons of the times; to note 
the changes of manners and morals; to trace the 
growth of that humane spirit which abolished punish- 
ment for debt, which reformed the discipline of prisons 
and jails, and which has, in our time, destroyed slavery 
and lessened the miseries of dumb brutes. Nor shall 
it be less my aim to recount the manifold improve- 
ments which, in a thousand ways, have multiplied the 
conveniences of life and ministered to the happiness 
of our race; to describe the rise and progress of that 
long series of mechanical inventions and discoveries 



THE TEACHING Ol' HISTORY l8l 

which is now the admiration of the world and our 
just pride and boast; to tell how, under the benign 
influence of liberty and peace, there sprang up, in the 
course of a single century, a prosperity unparalleled 
in the annals of human affairs; how, from a state of 
great poverty and feebleness, our country grew to one 
of opulence and power; how her agriculture and her 
manufactures flourished together; how, by a wise 
system of free education and a free press, knowledge 
was disseminated and the arts and sciences advanced; 
how the ingenuity of her people became fruitful of 
wonders far more astonishing than any of which 
alchemists had ever dreamed." 

This is a broad conception of the aims to be sought 
in teaching history, and while it may be impossible 
for the teacher of the elementary grades to give her 
pupils such an extensive view, owing to their im- 
maturity, and owing to want of time, at least she 
should hold this view herself. Thus she will possess an 
overflowing fountain of knowledge and will not fail to 
interest her pupils. To teach history the teacher 
should have a wide knowledge, so as to be able to 
draw material from many sources and to correlate 
and weave it into a unit, to point out the various in- 
fluences that have led up to an event or made an 
epoch, to show the relationships that exist, and to 
draw lessons that affect the world's progress and 
shape the destiny of man. Every teacher must know 
far more than she will be called upon to teach her 
pupils. He that knows but little more than those he 
instructs has but Httle to offer, and is therefore a 
poor teacher. We have seen that students go to the 



i82 teaching: its aims and methods 

ends of the earth to sit at the feet of men who have 
gained a mastery in some field of learning, in order 
to absorb something of the results of their research 
and thinking. 

It is not expected that the common school teacher, 
with her multifarious duties and with the many sub- 
jects that she must teach, shall be a great speciaHst 
in each subject. But with the abundance of material 
now at hand she can at least gain a proper idea of 
history and possess herself with far more than she can 
ever give to her pupils. Conceiving history to touch 
human life, it becomes of vital interest and of incal- 
culable profit to the pupils. Especially is this view of 
history of importance to a self-ruling people. It leads 
directly to an understanding of our form of government 
and prepares for intelligent and patriotic citizenship. 
Therefore it is of supreme importance to study history 
in the elementary school. 

In a word, then, the aim of the study of history 
should be to give the pupils a view of human Hfe past 
and present; it should train the judgment, stimulate 
the imagination, and cultivate the memory; it should 
foster patriotism and familiarize the children with the 
government of their own country and their duties 
towards it; it should arouse ambition and inculcate 
moral habits through the study of heroes and men who 
have influenced the destinies of the human race, 
cultivated the arts of peace, and fostered freedom. 

Methods in History Teaching. — 

I. In the primary grades. — The early method of teach- 
ing history before books were written or had become 
universal was by word of mouth in the form of story. 



THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 1 83 

Thus the early Jews taught their children the law and 
the deeds of their ancestors, and thus the Greeks per- 
petuated their immortal history. It is a natural instinct 
of children to love narration if told with vividness and 
in language suited to their comprehension. Stories from 
the Bible are quite suited to the needs of little children, 
while the lives of Columbus, Isabella, De Soto, Raleigh, 
Washington, Daniel Boone, Lincoln, can easily be 
portrayed so as to fascinate the young and convey 
very important historical lessons that will never be 
forgotten. 

While no text-book will be placed in the hands of 
the primary children, the teacher must be so thor- 
oughly famihar with the facts through investigation 
in many books as to be able to tell the story with 
accuracy and with force. There is abundance of 
material at hand quite suitable to the needs of young 
children, and the primary teacher can spend many 
profitable hours in recounting to her pupils heroic and 
stirring deeds and events, thus fixing many historical 
facts in their minds at an early age. These stories 
should be retold by the pupils, orally at first, and in 
writing as soon as they are able to do so. By skilful 
questioning the teacher can correct errors, supplement 
the deficient knowledge, and fix the lesson in the minds 
of the children. While the work should be intensely 
interesting, it should not be mere entertainment. 
The children are already learning history. 

2. In the intermediate grades. — As the children be- 
come older and are able to reason, the teaching should 
be more systematic and follow a more definite plan. 
The causes that led to a war and the results that fol- 



i84 teaching: its aims and methods 

low, such as the payment of indemnities, the ceding 
of territory, the aggrandizement of the victors and the 
corresponding humiliation of the vanquished, the loss 
of life and property, all these should be brought out. 
By the use of maps the location of battles may be 
indicated and the territorial changes resulting from 
the conflict pointed out. There should still be little 
use of text-books by the class, the teacher leading 
them step by step from one event to another by means 
of oral exposition. 

If there is a battle-field in the vicinity, the children 
should be taken to it and the details pointed out on 
the spot. But a careful preparation should be made 
beforehand by a full description of the battle and by a 
study of the details upon a map. The battle of 
Trenton was fought in the very center of the present 
city. The school children of the city have visited the 
various historic spots and placed tablets to locate the 
most important positions and incidents. Thus for all 
time not only the children but the stranger visiting 
the city will be able to locate where Washington stood 
when he directed the battle, where Colonel Rail fell, 
the house where he spent that fateful Christmas night 
in carousal, where the surrender took place, etc. This 
critical battle of the Revolution is thus made very 
real and vivid and the children gain impressions 
which they w^ill never lose. History is easily made to 
them a real and interesting subject which closely 
touches the actual life of men. 

The Battle-field of Jena. — I once visited the battle- 
field of Jena with a class of boys from a common school 
under the direction of their teacher. Suitable and thor- 



THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 1 85 

ough preparation had already been made in the school- 
room so that the boys could intelligently understand the 
lessons to be gained by the expedition. Napoleon's at- 
titude towards Prussia and the German people had 
been explained and his rapid march into the Father- 
land described. The efforts of the tardily awakened 
German king to check his advances, the meeting of 
the opposing armies on the plateau above the historic 
little university town, and the bloody, decisive battle 
of Jena had been portrayed. So far as could be done 
by word-picture, by drawings and maps, and by de- 
scriptions the boys had been taught the story of Ger- 
many's terrible humiliation. They were then taken 
to the battle-field, the positions of the opposing forces 
located, and the character of the attack explained. 
Up this ravine the French Emperor had dragged his 
heavy artillery and gained an important position. 
Professor Stoy pointed out the wonderful sagacity of 
Napoleon in choosing his position at a point now 
marked by what is called ''Napoleon's Stein." Each 
detail of the battle and the position of the commanders 
on both sides was made clear. There is no doubt 
that the lessons of the schoolroom were thus fortified 
and the events of that memorable day, October 14th, 
1806, were indeHbly fixed in the minds of the pupils. 
The boys' visit was made on the anniversary of the 
battle, a fact which added to the interest and doubtless 
aided in fixing the date. 

In this period children can be led gradually towards 
the conception of history outlined earlier in this chapter 
in the quotation from McMaster. They should be given 
some reading, but this should be carefully selected and 



1 86 teaching: its aims and methods 

definitely assigned. Oral and written reproductions 
should be required, and this work can be carried farther 
and the pupils held to a stricter account than is 
possible or advisable in the earlier grades. 

3. In the grammar grades. — ^'Anything like a full 
chronology, either of American or European history, 
is out of the question in the common school," says 
McMurry. This does not mean that now the pupil 
may not seriously undertake to acquire a great deal 
of real history. There is an abundance of suitable 
material quite within the comprehension of pupils 
in these grades which may be related to them and 
concerning which they can do considerable collateral 
reading. Only it must be emphasized that this read- 
ing should be definitely marked out. The children 
are not mature enough to do research work and are 
therefore likely to waste time in profitless groping in 
the dark. 

The New York State Education Department has 
issued a syllabus for the use of the schools in the state 
in which work for the fifth and sixth grades is outlined. 
This scheme seems entirely feasible. A definite plan 
of study is suggested with but Httle use of text-books, 
it being urged that, "The great value of the work for 
these years will depend upon the teacher's power of 
story-telling." This course includes a study of Leif 
the Lucky, Columbus, Drake, Raleigh, Roger Williams, 
John Smith, Miles Standish, Governor Winthrop, 
Henry Hudson, William Penn, Benjamin Franklin, 
Patrick Henry, Washington, John Paul Jones, Daniel 
Boone, Jackson, Eli Whitney, De Witt Clinton, 
Lincoln, Clara Barton, S. F. B. Morse, and many 



THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 1 87 

others. It centers around the hves of men who have 
influenced the race in discovery and settlement, in 
war and peace, in the arts and sciences, in invention 
and in philanthropy. Abundance of suitable collateral 
reading is suggested for the study of each character 
and of each accomplishment for the advancement of 
the world. 

This is followed by a course in American history 
for the seventh and eighth grades in which the pupils 
are provided with text-books for limited use. The 
syllabus suggests that ''the history teacher must 
make a wise selection of material, search in many books 
for the best presentation of each selected topic, and 
must often invent methods of presentation. Forming 
images is an important process in learning history. 
Images are formed from the text. The teacher must 
test these images, correcting them when necessary 
with word pictures and illustrations. Many ideas must 
be translated into the language of the child's experi- 
ence and environment." The material suggested in- 
cludes a study of the American Indian, the Discovery 
and Exploration Period, the Period of Settlement, the 
French and EngKsh struggles for North America, the 
Revolution, the Confederation, the Constitutional 
Period, the Civil War, and a consideration of our form 
of government. The work of the earlier grades is 
reviewed and extended, and such topics as methods 
of transportation, the slavery question, tariff laws, 
postal facilities, inventions, etc., receive treatment. 
An abundance of collateral reading is outlined and the 
pupils are taught how to employ the information thus 
acquired. 



1 88 teaching: its aims and methods 

Emphasis should be laid in this period upon the 
civic duties which the future citizen must assume. 
Memorizing dates and studying battles should have 
only a small place. McMurry suggests that *'It has 
been one of the chief aims of educators to find out a 
series of epochs in the world's history which are 
most interesting and instructive to children in their 
successive stages of growth. As yet there seems to 
be no general agreement upon this point, and therefore 
our courses of study are in a shifting condition; but 
so much, at least, seems to be established, that a few 
important epochs well treated in a descriptive and 
even dramatic fullness are far better than a systematic, 
chronological survey of the history of many nations." 
Just how far the history of other countries of the 
world should be undertaken in the elementary school 
is debatable. It certainly is impossible to make a 
connected and systematic study of the history of any 
country except our own. But an insight into the 
history of some other nations is necessary to a proper 
understanding of our own history. The English, the 
Spanish, the French, and the Dutch peoples have 
played an important part in the discovery, settlement, 
and development of our country and in shaping its 
institutions. Important events in the history of these 
nations, therefore, should be introduced in the form of 
descriptive presentation. 

! In a word, the teacher should select material that 
will explain the world's progress, the growth of nations, 
and the development of the race up to the present 
time in order to show her pupils what has been accom- 
plished and to give them an understanding of the age 



THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 1 89 

in which they live. To this end text-books for the 
older children should be employed rather as a guide 
for the teacher than as a systematic scheme for the 
children to follow. Of course the subject should 
be closely related with geography by the frequent 
use of maps and outlines. Reproductions both oral 
and written may be expected more and more as the 
pupils advance. These will fix the material learned, 
give power of connected thought and statement, and 
serve as an excellent exercise in composition as well. 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE TEACHING OV ARITHMETIC 

The Importance of the Subject. — Many believe that 
arithmetic is the most necessary and practical subject 
of the school course. That it is both necessary and 
practical is beyond question. It enters into the life 
of every person, and a lack of knowledge of arithmetic 
seriously handicaps an individual. An overestimate 
of value has led some schools to devote too much 
time to this subject, fully one-third of the school day 
being allotted to it. After all, the average person 
needs but little arithmetic in the affairs of life. If 
one were to reflect as to how little computation is 
really necessary for a day, a week, or a month, one 
would be surprised. One needs, of course, to know 
how to add, subtract, multiply, and divide, how to 
manipulate fractions, to handle compound numbers to 
a limited extent, and decimals, in order to understand 
percentage and to compute interest. But that is about 
all excepting for accountants, bookkeepers, engineers, 
and bankers. Indeed, even these have prepared tables 
and formulas, accounting machines, and other ''short- 
cuts" which save them from much computation. 
Therefore, viewed from the standpoint of practical 
use, too much time is devoted to arithmetic in schools. 

What Arithmetic Should Include. — I have already 
shown in the chapter on ''Waste in Education" that 
many subjects treated in the ordinary text-book on 



THE TEACHING OF ARITHMETIC 



191 



arithmetic, and demanded in our courses of study, 
might be eHminated and more profitable work sub- 
stituted. The Department of Public Instruction of 
New Jersey, in a bulletin entitled ''The Teaching of 
Elementary Arithmetic," suggests the following as the 
proper material for the elementary grades in arith- 
metic: 



Grade I. 


Counting 


numbers. 


Grade 11. 


Reading numbers. 

1. Integers — Arabic and Roman. 

2. Common fractions. 

3. Decimal fractions. 


Grade III. 


Writing numbers: 

1. Integers — Arabic and Roman. 

2. Common fractions. 

3. Decimal fractions. 


Grade IV. The proa 

1. Addition 

2. Subtraction 

3. Multiplication 

4. Division . . . . , 


'ss: 

■ of 


1. Integers 

2. Common fractions 

3. Decimal fractions to 

three places 



Grade V. Percentage applications: 

1. Trade or Commercial Discount. 

2. Profit or Loss. 

3. Commission. 

4. Simple Interest. 

Grade VI. The following subjects should be treated 
largely for informational purposes: 

1. Taxes. 5. Bonds. 

2. Insurance. 6. Bank Discount. 

3. Stocks. 7. Compound Interest. 

4. Partial Payments. 



192 teaching: its aims and methods 

Grade VII. Denominate numbers in useful problems of 
community value. 

It is further suggested that in all the topics under 
VI, together with Longtitude and Time, Ratio and 
Proportion, and Lumber Measure, the problems ^'should 
be of the simplest kind, and they should be used 
for their informational as well as for their mathe- 
matical value." Later in this chapter I shall present 
a detailed course in arithmetic. 

We usually require in our schools fully eight years 
in arithmetic, giving at least a period a day, whereas 
six years should be sufficient. German schools succeed 
in bringing their pupils to an excellent mastery of this 
subject in six years, without daily recitations even 
during all that time. They do this by eliminating 
unnecessary material and by superior methods of teach- 
ing. This enables them to devote the seventh and 
eighth years to elementary algebra and constructional 
geometry, with an hour or two a week for advanced 
arithmetic. With the many new subjects knocking at 
the door for admission to our schools, subjects that the 
demands of modern life make imperative, it is evident 
that there should be a serious curtailment of the time 
given to arithmetic. Some of these subjects are of 
far greater importance than arithmetic in preparation 
for life, without minimizing the importance of that 
subject. It is of more account to be able to read, to 
appreciate literature and history, to interpret the 
wonders of nature and the phenomena of the world 
about us, to express one's self by voice or pen accu- 
rately and clearly, to know our social and poHtical 



THE TEACHING OF ARITHMETIC 1 93 

institutions, and to be able to adjust one's self to one's 
environment and thus find happiness in life, than it 
is to be skilled in figures. 

I have no disposition to underrate the value of arith- 
metic. Besides its practical use, which is unquestioned, 
though exaggerated, as we have seen, it also has a 
disciplinary value, concerning which educators differ 
in opinion. The doctrine of formal discipline, which 
holds that training in one subject like arithmetic gives 
clearness, logical power, accuracy, and mental alert- 
ness along other educational lines, is not accepted by 
all. No one will dispute the value of the training 
arithmetic gives, especially in all subjects in which 
there is mathematical application, such as geography 
and the physical sciences, as well as in those that 
apply to commercial and scientific vocations. 

Nothing can take the place of arithmetic either from 
a practical or from a disciplinary standpoint, but it is 
not the only subject that has a practical or disciplin- 
ary value. It was formerly believed that mathematics 
was the only subject that trains in logical thinking. 
Other subjects, however, if properly taught, also train 
to reason, to judge, and to think, and modern methods 
of teaching are demonstrating this fact, as I am en- 
deavoring to show. 

Let us consider the aim and the method which should 
be in mind in teaching arithmetic, and thereby suggest 
its place, its purpose, and its limitations in the cur- 
riculum, and the specific end that it should seek to 
attain. 



194 teaching: its aims and methods 

I. Aims in Teaching Arithmetic^ 

The chief ends to be sought in arithmetic are 
accuracy and facility. While children should learn 
to work rapidly in numbers, this is subordinate to 
accuracy. One of the principal educational values in 
arithmetic lies in its exactness. It necessitates close 
thinking and develops logical power. But while the 
essential aim is accuracy, rapidity must also be secured. 
This power is acquired only through drill. Some sub- 
jects may be taught without requiring much thought, 
but not mathematics. Guesswork will not do, for the 
results are absolute. Nor will mere memorizing of 
rules and formulas answer. The pupil must think, 
must reason, must go to the foundations, or his work 
in arithmetic will prove futile. A girl persisted in 
memorizing her geometry lessons; she not only com- 
mitted the theorems to memory, but also the equations, 
the analyses, the demonstrations, and the conclusions. 
As a result any change in the position of the figures 
or the lettering, an alteration in the equations, threw 
her off the track. Of course she got nothing from 
the study of geometry, which of all subjects requires 
close thinking, reasoning, and absolute accuracy of 
expression. The same is true, in a measure, of arith- 
metic. 

Again, the object of studying arithmetic is to acquire 
abstract notions. Indeed, this is an important aim 
in all teaching, for the possession of abstract or general 
notions is an evidence of intelligence, and a measure 

^ For excellent suggestions on teaching arithmetic, see White's "Art 
of Teaching," p. 242, in which the work of the various grades is treated. 



THE TEACHING OF ARITHMETIC 1 95 

of the knowledge possessed. This is the final and abso- 
lute test that marks the dividing line between man and 
the lower animals. No animal other than man pos- 
sesses this power. Horses have been trained to per- 
form marvelous tricks, and even to work mathematical 
problems, so that it has been claimed that they can 
reason abstractly. But cover their eyes so that they 
can get no hint from their trainer, remove the con- 
crete means of suggestion, and they fail utterly.^ As 
the possession of abstract notions thus marks the 
degree of intelligence, arithmetic, which furnishes an 
excellent method of obtaining these notions, becomes 
an important means of education. 

We may summarize the aim in studying arithmetic 
as follows: (i) It prepares the child to meet the 
practical problems of everyday life. This necessitates 
absolute accuracy and great facility in the manipula- 
tion of numbers. It admits of no guesswork, as its 
results can be proven. (2) It has a peculiar disciplin- 
ary value because of its exactness. It gives clearness, 
logical power, mental alertness, and establishes a sense 
of truth, and therefore develops moral character. 
(3) It gives the child abstract or general notions. 
Nothing can take its place, either from the practical 
or the disciplinary standpoint. For this reason it has 
long held first rank in the work of the common school. 

^ Wide interest in this subject has been awakened in recent years by 
the performances in Germany of a celebrated horse, "Clever Hans." 
Many experts beUeved that here was a case of abstract reasoning in a 
lower animal. But Prof. Pfiingst has shown the utter fallacy of this 
claim in his book entitled, "Clever Hans." Other horses have been ex- 
ploited and wonderful results obtained, but there is no proof of the pos- 
session of the power of abstraction. 



196 teaching: its aims and methods 

Its value is by no means minimized when we say that 
it has taken too much of the time of the school; that 
there are other subjects also, which, when properly 
taught, develop the power to reason, to think, and to 
judge, and which are at least of as great practical 
value, and which also lay the foundations of character. 

II. Methods in Teaching Arithmetic 

The little child begins his study of number with 
objects. We have seen that too many objects must 
not be introduced, as they serve to distract and defeat 
the immediate purpose, that of mastery of the number. 
The child has only a limited power of attention, and 
anything that causes a withdrawal of any part of his 
attention from the end sought will serve to weaken 
his interest in what the teacher is seeking to do. 
Blocks, uniform in size, and not highly colored objects, 
which awaken too much attention in the object itself, 
are the best objects, and they are sufficient for all 
purposes of concrete illustration. They awaken no 
interest in themselves, and therefore the child soon 
ceases to think of the object, and gives all his atten- 
tion to the number being taught. They should be 
used until the child has gained the abstract notion, 
until, if given an example like 5+3, he instantly 
thinks 8, without having to think of 5 blocks and 3 
blocks. Here again is seen the necessity of drill, of 
much repetition. '^Wiederholung, Wiederholung, Wie- 
derholung, ewige Wiederholung,^^ was Karl Volkmar 
Stoy's watchword in teaching children, and this is 
certainly sound so far as number is concerned. 



THE TEACHING OF ARITHMETIC IQ^ 

If the tables are thoroughly learned, the child will 
not count on his fingers. I have already shown that 
when the child employs objects in counting it is a 
sure sign that he needs further drill, that he has not 
yet attained the abstract notion. 

The Concentric or Spiral Plan. — The arrangement of 
number work, therefore, should be somewhat concentric 
or spiral, but should avoid the scrappy, superficial 
treatment which was true of some of the earlier 
attempts of this arrangement. 

By the concentric or spiral plan in arithmetic, we 
mean beginning with the simplest elements of the 
important topics, and then passing on to the more 
difficult as we proceed through the higher grades until 
the fundamental topics become thoroughly familiar 
and are completely mastered. Good results in arith- 
metic depend in a large measure upon a proper arrange- 
ment of the topics to be treated in the lower grades. 
Addition is the simplest of all the fundamental pro- 
cesses, but if young pupils were drilled upon addition 
to the exclusion of all other processes, they would soon 
be struggling with its difficulties, lose interest, and be- 
come weary from its monotony. 

Simple phases of the fundamental processes that can 
be performed with small numbers, weights and meas- 
ures that are related to experience, and fractions that 
are concrete and result from the division of things, 
should be logically arranged, but the interest of the 
pupil, and his maturity of mind, should be the basis 
of the arrangement. The spiral system calls for thor- 
ough drill and therein lies its great value. 

The Sequence of Topics. — The sequence or proper 



ipS teaching: its aims and methods 

order of the topics in arithmetic has much to do with 
its successful teaching. Thoroughness should be one 
of the important aims of every teacher of arithmetic, 
but thoroughness does not mean that the child shall 
do nothing but addition of long columns of large 
numbers until he has finished the topic. Nor should 
the absurd presentations of the concentric plan, which 
have been introduced within the last quarter of a 
century, be adopted. 

It is evident to every thoughtful teacher that there 
are parts of each one of the fundamental processes 
which are beyond the maturity of the mind of the 
children of the primary grades, and that on the other 
hand there are simple phases of fractions, and measures, 
which are of interest and of practical use to the chil- 
dren of these grades. These topics can be selected and 
arranged so that a psychological as well as a logical 
order is observed, while the superficial treatment of 
some of the earlier attempts at the concentric plan are 
avoided. 

Oral and Written Work. — Both oral and written 
work in number must be employed. It has well been 
said, "The ability to perceive principles in problems 
orally stated, to carry them through a course of reason- 
ing, and to apply them in the solution of problems, is of 
greatest importance in disciplining and strengthening 
the mind. Hence, no system of arithmetic can be 
complete which does not combine oral with written 
exercises." A generation ago great stress was laid 
upon mental arithmetic in the schools, every child 
being put through Colburn's or Stoddard's, or some 
other "Mental Arithmetic." Doubtless the subject 



THE TEACHING OF ARITHMETIC 1 99 

was overworked, and this led to its elimination from 
the school course. There seems to be a tendency to 
restore it in a modified form, as it certainly possesses 
great educational merit. In the primary grades an 
abundance of concrete examples drawn from prac- 
tical life should be given, thus making the child's 
number work of real value. 

In the advanced classes in arithmetic, the method 
of procedure should be: (i) Teach the child how to 
solve problems, advancing from the easy to the diffi- 
cult until he has acquired the ability to work accu- 
rately and speedily. (2) Then let him explain them 
and tell in his own language how he worked them, as a 
test of his complete understanding of the process. 
(3) And finally, require him to commit to memory the 
rule given in the text-book. Many teachers omit this 
final step, holding that if the child can work the prob- 
lems and tell in his own way how they are done, it is 
sufficient. This is a reaction from the former method 
of having the rule committed first. While the first 
two steps are conceded to be absolutely essential, I 
think that the third also cannot be omitted if the 
work is to be fixed and become a permanent feature 
in the child's store of knowledge. It is a difficult 
thing to state in compact and accurate form a rule 
which states the whole truth without unnecessary 
verbiage, and therefore it cannot be expected of a 
child. And yet, the possession of such formulas, prin- 
ciples, rules, or norms of knowledge is of highest im- 
portance in intellectual as well as in moral Hfe. Who 
is not stronger in his moral Hfe if possessed of such 
fundamental aphorisms as ''Honesty is the best policy/' 



200 TEACHING: ITS AIMS AND METHODS 

*'To err is human; to forgive, divine/' *'As ye would 
that men should do unto you, do ye even so unto 
them." And is not the same true of intellectual 
formulas? Rules of grammar, learned after the truths 
they contain are understood, furnish a guide and are 
an assurance in the use of language. So, too, rules 
in arithmetic strengthen the hold of the pupil upon 
that subject. A rule is a recapitulation, a summary, a 
complete statement of a process, and Kern says that, 
"No instruction is complete without a final statement 
of the whole truth in a compact summary." Such 
rules thus stored in the child's mind will furnish sure 
and tried standards of accepted truth, upon which he 
may draw in the future with certainty and assurance. 
But it is to be remembered that he must first under- 
stand them or they will be of Httle use. 

Arithmetic Must be Practical. — Finally, let it be 
emphasized that the arithmetic of the school should be 
closely allied to the affairs of everyday life. Too 
often the school is quite another realm from that in 
which the child must exist, and we cannot emphasize 
too much the truth, ''The school is life," so pithily 
stated by John Dewey. Problems in marketing could 
be given to very young children, while there is an 
abundance of material available as they advance. As 
a concrete illustration, suppose the pupils are studying 
compound numbers, and a house is being built in the 
neighborhood of the school. Take the children on 
the ground and let them follow every step of the pro- 
cess, measuring dimensions and estimating the values 
of actual materials. How many problems that touch 
the subject-matter of arithmetic could be evolved! 



THE TEACHING OF ARITHMETIC 20I 

The excavation of the cellar and the erection of the 
walls would illustrate cubic measure; the surface of 
the interior and exterior, the siding, plastering, floor- 
ing, roofing, painting, and papering would furnish 
examples in square measure; there would be abundant 
use of linear measure, while estimates of cost of ma- 
terial, labor, and supervision would make a great va- 
riety of practical problems. Of course, this would 
take time, but it would awaken a live interest in the 
pupils, it would make them feel that they were actually 
doing something, and it would giv^e them about all the 
arithmetic the ordinary person needs. If such a 
result can be brought about it is worth while. Prob- 
lems connected with the farm, the shop, the store, the 
factory, or the household can easily be originated by 
both teacher and pupils, thus making arithmetic a 
vital, interesting, and practical subject. 

Because of the importance of the subject of arith- 
metic, because of the established place it holds in 
every school whatever else may be dropped from the 
curriculum, and because of the many erroneous notions 
as to what topics should be taught, I submit a model 
course of study for the eight years of the elementary 
school.^ 

^ This course of study was prepared by Prof. Frank H. Scobey, pro- 
fessor of mathematics in the New Jersey State Normal School at Trenton. 
It is the course which he presents to his method classes in arithmetic, 
and is recognized as a practical and at the same time psychologically and 
pedagogically sound presentation of the subject. This course is followed 
in the grades of the Model School connected with the Normal School at 
Trenton. 



202 teaching: its aims and methods 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN ARITHMETIC 

WORK OF THE FIRST SCHOOL YEAR 

The development of Ihe number sense in children of the same age 
varies so much that many schools defer the formal or systematic 
teaching of number until later. First year work should appeal to 
the child's interest in doing, i. e., constructing with blocks, designing 
with splints, grouping and classifying objects. Counting and 
measuring, which are the real beginning of number, should be the 
incidental product of these activities. 

I. Comparison and Counting 

A. Comparison. — Notions of greater than, less than, equality, 
more than, most, least, etc., should come before counting. 

Make this work of interest to children by having them compare 
blocks, splints, etc., and by constructing with blocks. To illus- 
trate, after the children have built with blocks let theqi make 
comparisons such as, ''This block is taller than that." **My tower 
is the highest of all." "My house has more blocks than John's 
has." 

B. Counting. — i. Counting blocks used in constructions: 
''There are 4 blocks in my chair." "I have put 6 blocks in 
my table;" "8 in the tower," etc. 2. Counting pupils in class, 
seats or desks in room, pictures on walls. 3. Houses on one side 
of street, boxes in post-office. 4. Balls on abacus by ones, tens, 
fives, etc., to 100. 

II. Notation of Numbers 

A. Writing figures to denote number of groups of things 
counted. 

B. Reading numbers under 100. Number of pages in reading 
books, street numbers of houses, numbers on post-ofiice boxes. 

C. Writing and reading numbers which stand for scores in 
number games. 



THE TEACHING OF ARITHMETIC 203 

III. Operations 

A. Additions. — Those that grow out of constructions and 
measurements with blocks, splints, etc. "I used 3 blocks to 
make the door, and 2 blocks for the steps of my house; 2 
blocks and 3 blocks are 5 blocks." ''This stick is 3 inches 
long; I put with it a 2-inch stick and make a stick 5 inches 
long." 

B. Subtractions. — Those similar to additions. "I had 7 blocks 
in a tower, but I took away 2 blocks and it left 5 blocks 
in the tower." 

IV. Denominate Numbers 

Children become acquainted with those related to their experi- 
ence: inch, square inch, pint, quart, nickel, dime, etc. 



WORK OF THE SECOND SCHOOL YEAR 

I. Number Space 

A. Counting by ones, twos, fives, tens, forward and backward. 
Counting by hundreds to 1000. Bundles of splints used to give 
idea of unit ten, unit hundred. 

B. Reading and writing numbers to 4 or 5 places. Devices 
for rapid reading of numbers. 

II. Measuring 

Work of first year continued and extended. 

A. Lines. — i. Measurement of lengths of objects with inch 
and foot units. 2, Judging of lengths of objects and measur- 
ing to test: 

"I think this splint is 6 inches long, etc." 3. Drill on number 
combinations to 20, using splints, strips of paper, lines on black- 
board. Illustrations: (a) Children combine splints and describe: 
"I put a 5-inch stick with a 6-inch stick and have an ii-inch 
stick." (b) Children estimate the length of stick which put with 
a 9-inch stick will make a 16-inch stick, (c) Similar exercises 
with lines, (d) Drawing, with aid of rulers, lines, rectangles of 
definite dimensions. Measuring perimeters of rectangles. 



204 teaching: its aims and methods 

B. Surfaces. — Measuring rectangles by folding, or dividing 
into square inches. Describing such forms as follows: "I made 
an oblong 5 inches long and 2 inches wide, and it contains 10 
square inches." Note: This work is limited to small rectangles. 

III. Fundamental Facts 

A. Review those learned incidentally during the first year, 
and classify in tables. 

B. Finish additions and corresponding subtractions in folio v/ing 
arrangement (Tables of 4 + and — 4) : — 

5-4= I 

6— 4=2 

7- 4= 3 
8-4=4 

13- 4= 9 

C. Vary this arrangement with the more practical form: 
Addition. Illustration of Table 4. 

123456789 
444444444 



4+1 = 


■ 5 


4+2 = 


6 


4+3 = 


7 


4+4 = 


8 


4+9 = 


13 



5 
on. 


6 7 8 9 10 
Austrian method ^ 


II 


12 


13 


5 
4 

I 


6 7 8 9 10 

4 4 4 4 4 
23456 


II 
j4 

7 


12 

4 
8 


13 

_4 

9 



D. In teaching facts of addition and subtraction the method 
should be objective until the children acquire the power of inference. 

Illustration of the method of inference: — If 4+4= 8, how 
many are 4+4 and i? How many are 4+ 5 ? or, If 4+ 5 are 9, 
how many are 5+4? 

E. Drill thoroughly on combinations until their recall is auto- 
matic. 

^ By the Austrian method is meant the method of adding to the sub- 
trahend to make the minuend instead of the method of "taking from" 
the minuend. 



THE TEACHING OF ARITHMETIC 205 

F. Facts of multiplication and division begun in second term. 
The following arrangement shows proper order of teaching: — 
Tables of 4 : 

iX 4= 4 4-^4=1 

2X 4= 8 8-^ 4= 2 

3X 4= 12 12-J- 4= 3 

9X4=36 364-4=9 

G. Metho<i of teaching should be objective at first. For method 
by inference, see third year work. 

IV. Fractions 

Children divide objects, as paper disks and rectangles, into 
halves, fourths, thirds. In measurement they perceive such rela- 
tions as I as large, \ as large. They learn to express these parts 
or relations with figures. 

V. Denominate Numbers 

Those which appeal to experience and which may be taught 
objectively: {a) Pint, quart, gallon. (Relations seen); (h) Cent, 
nickel, dime, dollar; {c) Inch, foot, yard; (d) Tell time by clock, 
some idea of divisions of time. 

VI. Written Arithmetic 

A. Addition. — i. Combinations as shown in III C. 2. Addi- 
tions of two three-place numbers, {a) No ''carrying." {h) Where 
units order exceeds 9. 

B. Subtraction. — Austrian . Method, i. As seen in III C. 
2. Two three-place numbers involving no "borrowing." 

VII. Nature of Problems 

Problems (or stories) are related to children's experience and 
interest, i. e., their toys, purchases, games, handwork, costs of 
measures of things. The problems should involve numbers which 
they can use mentally, and in purchases the actual prices of things 
should be used. 



2o6 teaching: its aims and methods 

WORK OF THE THIRD SCHOOL YEAR 

I. Number 

A. Drill on additions and subtractions continued. Tables of 
combinations for increasing facility in addition, e. g: 

4+ 5= 9 9+6= 15 

14+ 5= 19 19+ 6= 25 

24+ 5= 29 29+ 6= j5 

94+ 5= 99 99+ 6= 105 

Children will learn from these exercises that adding 5 to a number 

ending in 4 always gives a number ending in 9, etc. 

B. Multiplications. — i. In teaching a new fact based upon 
preceding fact as, 4X 6+6= 5X 6, or upon preceding primary 
fact as, If 8X7= 56, then 7 X 8 = 56. 2. After necessary drill 
classify tables as far as 12 X 12. 

C. Divisions (Parallel with Multiplications). — i. Derive from 
corresponding multiplication fact, e. g., If 7X8= 56, then 
56-^ 8= 7. 2. Classify in tables as far as 144 -i- 12= 12. 
3. In exact divisions, as 

29 -J- 5 = 5 and 4 over 
32 -^ 6= 5 and 2 over. 

II. Written Arithmetic (Fundamental processes) 

A. Notation and Numeration as far as numbers of six figures. 

B. Addition. — Sums of numbers in which results of columns 
are greater than 9. Difliculties provided for by graded steps. 

C. Subtraction. — One or more orders of subtrahend greater 
than corresponding orders of minuend. (Steps graded.) 

D. Multiplication. — i. Multiplier less than ten. 2. Multiplier 
of two figures. 

E. Short Division. (Steps graded.) 

III. Fractions. Taught Objectively 

Teach in the following order of sets: 
First set, halves, fourth, eighths. 
Second set, thirds, sixths. 



THE TEACHING OF ARITHMETIC 207 

A. Comparisons, e. g., |= f. 

B. Additions and Subtractions: 

l+i i+i i-i 

i+i i+i l-i 

i+l 

C. Partitions or fractional parts of numbers: 

I and I of numbers 

I and f of numbers Concrete Problems. 

IV. Measurement 

A. Folding or dividing rectangles in square inches as described 
in second year work. 

B. Comparing rectangles to determine ratio, as |, I as large, or 
2, 3, 4, times as large. 

C. Drawing rectangles on paper or board and estimating surface 
by applying unit of measure. 

D. Distances measured in inches, feet, and yards. 

E. Denominate Numbers reviewed, adding ounce and pound, 
quart, peck, dry measure. Show relations, 

V. Notation of United States Money and Simple Applications 
Purchases and making change. 

VI. Roman Notation to 100 

VII. Oral and Written Problems of simple character should be 
associated with the work of each topic. Successful work in prob- 
lems depends upon keeping them within the children's experience 
and applying to their interests. Make problems about their manual 
work, gardens, purchases, possessions. Limited use of text-book 
for this grade. 

WORK OF THE FOURTH SCHOOL YEAR 

I. Notation and Numeration 

Reading and writing numbers through three periods. Little 
formal drill is needed in this, as there is constant review in writing 
and reading numbers corresponding to the arithmetical terms, 
multiplicand, multiplier, product, dividend, and quotient. 



2o8 teaching: its aims and methods 

II. Written Arithmetic 

A. Thorough drill in four fundamental operations, working for 
accuracy and rapidity. 

B. Increase difficulties for variety, interest, and power. Pupils 
in this grade will be interested in proving or checking results. 

C Multiplication, i. Use multipliers of three figures with zero 
in units' place. 2. Multiplier of three figures with zero in tens' 
place. Prove products by an interchange of factors. 

D. Division, i. Exercises with divisor of two figures. Divisor 
where units' figure is small, as 31, 43, 51. 2. Exercises where divisor 
consists of three figures, but small numbers in units' and tens' place, 
as 321, 223. 3. Divisors of two figures where more than one trial 
must be made to find correct quotient, 17, 27, 39. 4. Where cipher 
appears in quotient. 5. Check or prove division by multiplying 
divisor and quotient. 

III. Fractions 
Additions and subtractions with following series: 

A. Halves, fourths, eighths, sixteenths. 

B. Halves, fourths, sixths, twelfths. 

C. Thirds, sixths, ninths, etc. 

D. Mixed numbers containing such fractions. (Objects or draw- 
ings used when necessary.) 

IV. Decimals 

A . Review United States money early, that it may be used in drill 
problems in fundamental processes. 

B. Notation and numeration of decimals containing tenths and 
hundredths. 

C. Addition, subtraction of decimals containing tenths and 
hundredths. 

D. Multiplication and division. Multiplicand and dividend 
containing tenths and hundredths. 

Note: Work to be constantly correlated with common fractions 
having 10 or 100 as denominators. 

V. Measurement 
A. Linear Measures. — i. Extend use of long measure to measur- 
ing distances in schoolroom and schoolyard. Give idea of miles' 



THE TEACHING OF ARITHMETIC 209 

distance between well-known places in city (or locality). 2, Judg- 
ing of distances in feet or yards and testing estimate. 3. Cost of 
articles sold by foot or yard. 

B. Surface Measures. — i. Review method of finding number of 
unit squares in rectangle by multiplying number of unit squares in 
a row, one unit wide, by number of rows. 2. Find number of square 
feet in blackboard, schoolroom floor. 3. Ratios of rectangular 
figures, one dimension common to both, e. g., a rectangle 3 in. long 
and 2 in. wide is f of a rectangle 4 in. long and 2 in. wide. 

C Solid Measure. — i. By use of unit cubes, pupils build solids 
of given dimensions, e.g., pupils led to see that a solid 3 inches long, 
2 inches wide, one inch high, contains 2 rows of 3 cubic inches. 
A solid 2 inches high, 3 inches long, 2 inches wide, contains 2 layers 
of 6 cubic inches. 2. Ratios of solids (blocks) where two dimensions 
are the same in each. Use prisms and cylinders only in these com- 
parisons. 3. Fractional parts of solids made up of cubic inches. 
D. Review and extend use of tables of weights and measures: 
avoirdupois, liquid and dry measures. United States money, and 
time measure. Exercises in these, bringing out simple relations 
between denominations of each table; e. g., pupils, by measure- 
ment, see that pint is ^ of quart, | of gallon. 

VI. Problems 
Oral and written problems associated with each of the topics. 
Formal explanations not required, but pupils encouraged to tell 
reason for single process in answer to definite question. Problems 
illustrated by drawings or objects when necessary. Limited use of 
text-book for this grade. 



WORK OF THE FIFTH SCHOOL YEAR 

I. Notation and Numeration 

A. Numbers through three periods. 

B. Numbers containing three decimal places. 

II. Frequent Drills in fundamental operations, with proofs 
and results. 



2IO teaching: its aims and methods 

III. Fractions 

A . Work outlined for preceding grades reviewed. 

B. Addition. — i. Fractions having small denominators. 2. 
Mixed numbers, fractions having small denominators. 

C. Subtraction. — i. An integer from a mixed number. 2. A 
mixed number from a mixed number, the fraction in the subtra- 
hend less than that of minuend. 3. A mixed number from an 
integer. 4. A mixed number from a mixed number, fraction in 
subtrahend larger than that in minuend. 

D. Multiplication. — Simpler processes developed by divided 
lines, disks, or rectangles, i. A fraction by an integer. 2. A mixed 
number by an integer. 3. An integer by a fraction. 4. An integer 
by a mixed number. 5. A fraction by a fraction. 6. A mixed 
number by a mixed number. 

E. Division. — Processes developed objectively, i. A fraction 
by an integer. 2. An integer by a fraction. 3. An integer by a 
mixed number. 4. A fraction by a fraction. 5. A mixed number 
by a mixed number. 

IV. Decimals 

A. Notation and Numeration. Notation based on United States 
money. 

B. Relation of decimal to common fraction whose denominator 
is 10, 100, or 1000, frequently seen. 

C. Fundamental processes. Decimals limited to two, three 
places. I. Addition and subtraction. 2. Multiplication and divi- 
sion by integers showing the place of point in product and quotient. 

V. Measurement and Denominate Numbers 

A. Square Measure. — Mensuration of squares, rectangles, and 
right triangles, given base and altitude, i. Perimeters and areas. 
Generalizations for these processes reached by folding and cutting 
of paper, or by drawings. 2. Notation carefully taught. 

B. Cubic Measure. — Methods suggested in preceding grades 
leading to generalization for finding — i. Lateral surfaces of cubes, 
and 2. Contents of prisms. Note: Incorrect notation should be 
avoided. 

C. Review and practice under tables of practical value. 



THE TEACHING OF ARITHMETIC 211 

VI. Mechanical Drill — Oral and written. 

A . Short drill every day on fundamental operations or in topics 
taught to secure accuracy and rapidity. 

B. Business Fractions: e. g., finding cost of articles at 50^ ($|), 
at 25^ ($i), $1.50 ($1), etc. 

VII. Bills Made out and Receipted 

The model should have date, name, adress, and business of maker, 

J jj r J u* [ Actual transactions imagined, 

name and address of debtor. \ ^^ . . , ^ 

[ Keepmg of personal accounts. 

VIII. Problems. 

In using problems from text-books eliminate those which are not 
of practical application. Omit problems that are too difficult for 
grade. Make problems suited to environment of pupils if they do 
not appear in text-book. Reasons for operations given, but formal 
explanations not required. 

WORK OF THE SIXTH SCHOOL YEAR 

I. Common Fractions 

A. Addition and subtraction: — Practice in determining com- 
mon denominators by inspection. 

B. Multiplication of fractions. — For cases, see work of Fifth 
Grade. Use cancellation for abbreviating work. (Cancellation 
shown as a shorter process.) 

C. Division. — See work of Fifth Grade. Use method of in- 
verting divisor. 

II. Decimal Fractions 

A. Notation and Numeration. — To six places. Frequent com- 
parisons with common fractional form. Test knowledge of relative 
magnitude of decimals; e. g., Which is larger .8 or .7653? 

B. Additions and Subtractions. — Decimals containing more 
than three places. 

C. Multiplication. — Multiplier, a decimal or number contain- 
ing decimal. 



'21^ tj:aching: its aims and methods 

D. Division. — Divisor, a decimal or number containing deci- 
mal. 

Note : Use simple exercises in C and D. 

III. Percentage 

A. Drill on following preliminary work: — i. Find the frac- 
tional part of a number; e. g., what is | of 21? 2. Find ratio of one 
number to another given number; e. g., what is the ratio of 14 
to 21? 

B. Drill on the following per cents and their fraction equiva- 
lents: — 

100% 75% 66|% 

50 60 ssl 

25 70 I2| 

20 30 37^ 

10 40 i6f 
5 

C. Introduce the following cases of percentage showing relation 
to same cases in fractions: i. Find the percentage (or part) when 
base and rate are given; e. g., what is 25% of 24? 2. Find the 
rate when base and percentage are given; e. g., 6 is what per cent 
of 24? 

IV. Simple Interest 

A. Nature and purpose illustrated. 

B. Interest calculated for years and months, cancellation 
method, e. g., interest on $600 at 6% for 3 years and 4 months. 



V. Measurement 

A. Denominate Numbers. — i. Consider only those tables 
which have a practical application. 2. Reductions descending 
and ascending (to reasonable limit). 3. Additions and subtrac- 
tions for drill only. 



THE TEACHING OF ARITHMETIC 213 

B. Mensuration. — i. Perimeters and areas of rectangles and 
triangles, base and altitude given. 

C. Volumes of rectangular prisms. 

D. Simple Problems in fencing, painting, paths, frames, plaster- 
ing, capacity of bins and tanks, and excavations. 

Note: Pupils are taught the drawing of figures and illustrations 
to convenient scale. 

VI. Roman Notation Reviewed and Extended 

VII. Careful Selection of Problems with Reference to 
Maturity of Minds of Pupils and Practical Value 

Increasing interest in analysis should be expected, but pupils 
of this grade are more interested in doing than explaining. Pupils 
expected to make clear statement of how problem is done. 

WORK OF THE SEVENTH SCHOOL YEAR 

I. Brief Review of Fundamental Processes, Fractions, 
and Decimals 

Proof of processes. 

II. Review of Denominate Numbers 

Emphasizing fractional and decimal forms. Useful equivalents 
memorized and applied; e. g,, cubic inches in bushel, cubic inches in 
gallon. Weight of cubic foot of water. Gallon of water, bushel 
of wheat, corn, etc. in pounds. 

III. Measurement 

A. Mensuration of parallelograms, triangles, and trapezoids. 

B. Surfaces and contents of rectangular prisms. 

C. Ratio of circumference of circle to diameter illustrated and 
applied. 

D. Area of circle shown to be equivalent to a parallelogram 
whose altitude equals radius, and whose base equals semi- 
circumference. 

E. Problems in plastering, papering, carpeting, excavation of 
cellars, paving, and flooring. Bricklaying and stonework. Com- 
parison of rules found in text-books with those used by artisans. 



214 teaching: its aims and methods 

IV. Percentage 

A. Review cases taught in sixth grade. 

B. Develop: — Find the base when percentage (or part) and 
rate are given. 

V. Profit or Loss. Show that these are percentage applica- 
tions with a difference in names of terms only. 

VI. Trade Discounts. - l*uri)osc and ap|)lication illustrated. 
Discount on bills and accounts. 

VII. Commission. — Show how cotton or some product used in 
home place may be purchased through an uiicnt. I low manufac- 
tured goods are sold through a^ctit. Show that commission and 
percentage are the same, excepting in names of terms used. Practi- 
cal work is mostly confined to one [)rol)lem. Given base and rate 
to fmd commission. 

VIII. Simple Interest 

A. Review of interest leading to formula: I == pX tX r. 

B. Six per cent method explained. 

C. Interest tables used. 

IX. Problems. — Pupils in this grade are interested in problems 
and accounts pertaining to living expenses, home industries, food 
and clothing, supplies and transportation. More attention to 
analyses of problems is given in this grade than in preceding ones. 
Postal Saving Banks exj)lained. 

WORK OF THE EIGHTH SCHOOL YEAR 

T. Brief Review of Fundamkntal Procksses. Emphasize 
importance of proving results. Convenient short methods used. 

II. Business Arithmetic 

A. Percentage and its ai)i)lications to profit or loss and com- 
mission reviewed. 

B. Interest reviewed, noting diiTerence between common and 
exact method. 

C. Compound interest (to limited extent). Its use in savings 
banks. Use of table in solving problems. 



THE TEACHING OF ARITHMETIC 21 5 

D. Promissory Note. — interest and discount. — i. Under what 
conditions given? 2. Illustrations of common forms. 3. What is 
necessary to make them negotiable? 4. Forms of indorsement. 
5. Dishonoring a note. 6. Interest and non-interest bearing notes, 
— {a) paid at maturity, (6) after maturity, {c) before maturity. 
7. Protest by notary public. 8. Agency of the bank in paying 
and discounting notes explained. 

E. Partial payments. — The United States rule only (limited 
to few exercises). 

F. Domestic Exchange (optional). — i. Uses of drafts. 2. Con- 
ditions affecting cost of drafts giving rise to premium or discount. 

3. Sight and timed rafts. How purchased. 4. Calculation of 
cost only. 

G. Stocks and Bonds. — i. Formation of stock company simply 
illustrated by describing organization of one in locality. Charter. 
2. Exercises that might arise in connection with this stock company 
made and solved. 3. How stocks are bought and sold through 
broker. 4. Some conditions which cause stocks to rise or fall. 
5. Distinction between legitimate and illegitimate buying. 6. Use 
of tables of quotations in newspapers as a source of problems. 
7. Description of stock exchange. 

HI. Ratio and Simple Proportion. — Its identity of propor- 
tion with simple equation. Use of x for missing term. 

IV. Taxes 

A. Direct — the connection between this topic and the support 
of local government and state explained. Pupils provided with 
tax bills that show "budget." 

B. Duties and Customs. The connection between this topic 
and the support of government (Federal) illustrated (Hmited to 
few exercises). 

V. Insurance. — Topic illustrated by cancelled policies. Fire 

and Life Insurance briefly treated. 

VI. Mensuration (Concrete Geometry) 

A. Surfaces of plane figures reviewed. 

B. Lateral surfaces of solids illustrated and found. 

C. Volumes of prism, cylinder, pyramid, cone, and sphere. 



2i6 teaching: its aims and methods 

VII. Square Root (Limited Use) 

A. Process explained. 

B. Applications in problems. 

VIII. Metric System. — Sufficient study of this system to 
prepare for work in natural sciences. Actual use of weights and 
measures. 

IX. Problems. — Pupils in this grade will be interested in 
problems dealing with agriculture, factory conditions, mining, 
lumbering, transportation, statistics of weather bureau, population, 
and extent of territory. Cost of heating, lighting, and furnishing 
a home. Cost of food and clothing for family. In the seventh and 
eighth grades greater power in analysis should be developed. 

X. Literal Arithmetic 

A. Change from the decimal to literal notation should be made 
in exercises in mensuration, in generalizing, in percentage prob- 
lems, and in interest. 

B. The use of x should be made in solving problems where 
time and aynalsis will be saved. In problems of percentage and 
proportion its use should be encouraged. 



Note: The order stated in above outline is not necessarily the 
order of presentation. 



CHAPTER XV 

INSTRUCTION IN PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 

The Duty of the School toward Public Health. — That 
good health is a public asset is being realized now 
more than ever before. Therefore the problems of 
clean streets, pubHc baths, pure water, sanitation, 
sewage disposal, pure foods, and safeguarding against 
contagious diseases, are receiving a great deal of atten- 
tion. As a result the average duration of human life 
has been extended, and men are enjoying greater com- 
forts, are healthier and happier. Tables of mortaHty 
a quarter of a century ago show that more than 40% 
of the mortaHty was of children under five years of 
age. Recent tables show that this terrible death rate 
has been reduced to 20% of all the deaths. Rowe 
says, ''In Chicago, statistics for 1894 show that one 
child out of every twenty of five years and younger 
died during this period. In the next five years the 
death rate was only one out of every 115, in the suc- 
ceeding ten years the death rate was one out of every 
322." 

The people are being educated in matters of health, 
food, cleanliness, and sanitation, so that many things 
that were treated with indifference a few years ago 
would not be tolerated now. Inasmuch as it is so 
largely a matter of education, the duty of the school 
becomes apparent. 



2i8 teaching: its aims and methods 

Most states of the Union have laws requiring instruc- 
tion in the public school in the effects of alcohol and 
narcotics upon the human system. There should be 
equal stress laid upon teaching cleanliness, the nutri- 
tive value and nature of foods, and upon general sani- 
tation. Intemperance very often is caused by men 
being the victims of poor food, badly prepared. The 
American people are woefully lacking in knowledge of 
food values and what might be called the harmony 
of foods. We eat lobster salad, cucumbers, and radishes, 
washing the whole down with chocolate, and then top 
off with ice cream and rich cake. Think of the combi- 
nations we mix together in our poor, abused stomachs. 
And then we wonder why most of us are dyspeptic, 
and why so many die of acute indigestion. We are 
ignorant of the simplest laws of food combination and 
are paying for it with chronic dyspepsia, debilitated 
digestive organs, and consequent anaemia or poverty 
of blood, and a final breaking down of the nervous 
system. And it is not the fatal results that are the 
most serious, but rather the decreased power of resist- 
ing disease and the diminished efficiency in the affairs 
of life that should cause the most concern. 

It cannot be the purpose here to treat of the anatomy 
of the human body or of such topics as belong to a 
work on physiology. The purpose rather is to present 
the material that every teacher can teach, and every 
child should know, with suggestions as to the manner 
of giving such instruction. Whenever there is efficient 
medical inspection of the schools it may be expected 
that the physical well-being of the children will be 
properly cared for. As yet, however, comparatively 



INSTRUCTION IN PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 219 

few schools have such inspection. Where it has been 
introduced, its Hmitations are such that it cannot be 
wholly efficient, hence the individual teacher must be 
interested and informed upon this subject. 

I . Defective Eyesight. — There are pupils in almost 
every schoolroom who are afflicted with some defect 
of vision. Rowe says, ' Careful records have been 
made in cities of our own country and abroad, and it 
has been estimated that the percentage of poor eyes 
increases from grade to grade." He thinks that about 
20% of the children in the upper grades have some 
weakness of the eye against 3 % of those entering school. 

It certainly is the duty of the teacher to discover 
these defects, to guard against them, and to prevent 
their increase. At any rate, the teacher must not be 
a party to the creation of such defects. She should 
know when there is sufficient light, should see that it 
comes from the right direction, and should not allow 
pupils to sit directly facing the sun's rays. She should 
prevent the use of too fine a print, should see that the 
ventilation is good, and should jealously guard against 
unsanitary conditions. Moreover, she should instruct 
the pupils as to the value of eyesight, and should 
explain how it is endangered in reading by twilight or 
other obscure illumination, by forcing the eyes to read 
when they are tired, through the use of cigarettes, and 
the reading of fine print. 

She should aid them in securing glasses when these 
are needed. I once observed that a boy in reading 
held the book very close to his eyes. Indeed, he was 
so near-sighted that he was compelled to move the book 
from side to side in reading a line. I visited his 



220 I I'-ACIIINC: IIS AIMS AND MIII'IIODS 

|):ir('rjh; .lud siij^jM-slcd llial he should wear glasses. 
" Wli>', lie is loo yoiiii^^ lo vvcai" ^^lasscs; he is oid\' 
IwcU'c years old!" IIicn' ( X( laiincd. And it was vvilli 
<liHl(llll^■ llial I ( <>ii\ iiK cd lIuMii llial llie use of jijlasscs 
was no! a (|U('slioii ol a^^v. Tlicy Imally liad his eyes 
examined, and when he secured /{lasses not only could 
he lead naluiaiiy l>ul all his oilier S( h(M)| work ini 
|>ro\('d. Thiid; ol Ihe new and exlended world that 
was opened u|) to llial hoy wilhiii ihe new horizon 
which his /-lasses made lor him. II Ihe ( liild complains 
ol lre(|uenl headaches, there is /',roiind for suspicion 
that there is somelliiii|^ wronj^ with his eyes, and ho 
should he examined hy an oiulisl. l\owe wisely 
remaiks, " W lii'ic we are perloK c ol)Ii/;ed lo tea( h in 
(ondilions not ideal, we should he all the inoK* (areful 
lo see that e\('iy laNorin;- (ondilion possible he /^ivcil 
the < hildreii and that lre(|uenl tests he made to dis- 
coN'cr causes ol \ isual delei Is whic h may he just devel- 
opiii)',." i'lie teacher should not only /^i\'e attention 
to individual cases, hut she should also watch all 
schoolroom (ondilions, c once t in/'; those that are had 
and inleic-slini' the propel authorities when there arc 
e\ ils to he ccurec ted. The teacher may he assured of 
the support ol parents in a matter ol such \ital inij)()r- 
taiuc to their children it they can only he hrought to 
understand the situation. 

:. Defective Hearing;. Casc^s ol del"ecti\(' hearin/j; 
are i)roI)ahl\' more common than those of def(Hti\'e 
eyesight. It is pretty well eslahlished that fully 
twtMity fix'e per cent of the pupils in the schools have 
some defec 1 in hearing in oni^ or hoth ears. Very often 
the teacher is unaware of such deftnts, and ofteiuM- still 



INSTTUIfTION IN I'JIYSIOLOr.Y AND HYGIENE 221 

the child is unaware of it. Jndvcd, most persons are 
reluctant to admit that they do not hear well. A 
teacher reprimanded a hoy of sixteen who was (h'- 
cidedly deaf for failing to respond to a command ^Iven 
in a general gymnastic exercise. Reflecting that the 
boy probably had not heard he apologized in the words, 
"Edwin, excuse me, I forgot that you are deaf." 1'he 
boy dropped into his seat and sobbed h*k(; a child, and 
when afterward liis lea( her told him (hat he liad not 
meant to hurt his feehngs, the boy replied, "l know 
that you di(bi't, but f was n(tver before told that 1 
am deaf. I feared it and you have simply confirmed 
what I feared. I now know that T am really deaf and 
that is what broke me down." Iwi(h.'nces of poor 
hearing are found in the strained altitude in listening, 
in the necessity of repeating ({uestions, in the wrong 
answers given, in the fatigue shown, and in the failure 
to progress in the work. 

Of course these may not be absolute proofs, for the 
child may have been inattentive, or may not have 
comprehended. 13 ut repeated acts of the above nature 
would certainly justify the suspicion that the child had 
not heard. In such cases he should be subjected to 
special tests for hearing, many of which are quit(^ 
within the resources of the teacher. Rowe gives a very 
simple test which any teacher can make.^ ''Place the 
child on one side of the room, facing the wall. Have 
him close one ear and shut the eyes. Take a position 
a little to the side of the ear to be tested, and by a 

' Rowe f^'ivcs excellent uiul full (i(-s( riplions of tests l>oth for the eye 
and the car in his work, "Tlic IMiysiral Nature of the Child," The Macmil- 
lan Co., New York. 



222 teaching: its aims and methods 

slow movement bring a watch from a position five or 
six feet to one side, toward the ear. The child is to 
tell you as soon as he hears the ticking. If a special 
noise arises, wait until the disturbing sound has ceased. 
Try until the results are consistent." It is important, 
however, that the teacher shall know what the normal 
distance is for the particular watch in order to deter- 
mine whether or not the child's hearing is normal. 
This can be found by experimenting with the watch 
upon a person known to possess normal hearing. 
Simple tests of this kind will be sufficient to detect 
the most marked cases, those that need especial atten- 
tion in seating and in instruction. 

Rowe further suggests, '^As over 90% of the cases 
can be cured, the parents should be urged to have the 
child examined by a physician. Many persons have 
become permanently deaf, or partially so, who might 
have been easily cured and thus have been spared the 
affliction, had an intelligent teacher or parent taken 
the matter in hand in time." As so many parents 
are ignorant of these matters, there is all the more 
reason for the teacher to be on her guard. 

3. Contagious Diseases. — The most common conta- 
gious diseases of children are scarlet fever, measles, 
diphtheria, chicken pox, mumps, whooping-cough, and 
tuberculosis. The school offers a most dangerous 
medium for the spread of disease, because the children 
come from all parts of the community, because they 
mingle freely within the narrow confines of the school- 
room and the playground, and because of the common 
use of books and materials. Hence most stringent 
rules, designed to prevent the spread of disease, should 



INSTRUCTION IN PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 223 

be followed. These conditions necessitate considerable 
knowledge of the symptoms of the ordinary diseases 
of children on the part of the teacher. Of course she 
cannot be expected to have the expert knowledge of 
a physician, but she can take measures to safeguard 
the pupils and the community. The usual and most 
easily recognized symptoms of many of the children's 
diseases are headache, flushed face, high temperature, 
quickened pulse, dull eyes, sore throat, and general 
lassitude. Sometimes the child is peevish, ill-natured 
or insubordinate. When satisfied that there is some- 
thing wrong with the child, the teacher should send 
him home. Nor is her duty done when the danger is 
removed from the school. Report should promptly 
be made to the board of health, the board of education, 
or some available authority, so that the case may be 
followed up. Of course the parents should be notified, 
but in many cases this would not be sufficient, for it 
is well known that many parents will conceal the 
presence of a contagious disease in order to escape the 
inconvenience of quarantine. 

If there is a school physician or a school nurse, the 
matter is very much simplified for the teacher, for they 
will assume the responsibility. But we have seen that 
these important factors are still lacking in many schools; 
therefore the teacher must be prepared to meet emer- 
gencies. Precaution also must be taken to prevent 
children from returning to school until all danger of 
contagion has been removed. A physician's certificate 
should be required to determine this. There is no more 
important duty that the teacher can perform for the pub- 
lic than this one of watching children's health. 



2 24 teaching: its aims and methods 

4. Food and Eating. — What better preparation for 
life in a real and practical sense can a man or a woman 
have than a knowledge of foods, their preparation, 
their nutritive value, and their adaptability for easy 
digestion and absorption. I have already shown how 
ignorant we are upon this matter and pointed out the 
evil consequences that grow out of that ignorance. 
Instruction concerning foods is an essential part of the 
German school course. A teacher in Leipsic had before 
him a class of six-year-old boys. The subject was 
bread. The teacher discussed the kinds of bread, 
pointed out their nutritive values, and explained how 
they should be eaten. ''How old must bread (Schwarz- 
hrod) be when eaten?" was asked. "Twenty -four 
hours old at least," was the answer of the children. 
Hot-breads have no place in the German diet. Stomach 
diseases are rare among that people. Is there not 
an evident connection between these two facts? The 
children were taught to eat slowly, to masticate well, 
and not to drink during the meal as a means of hasten- 
ing the swallowing. Overton says,^ ''A whole train 
of evils follows intemperate eating. When food is 
swallowed in large lumps instead of being masticated 
to a thin gruel, too little saliva is mixed with it. It 
reaches the stomach too dry, and so a large amount of 
gastric juice is needed. But the saHva is the natural 
stimulant to the flow of juice, and if it is small in 
amount, the gastric juice does not flow in sufficient 
quantity, and food is not well digested." He further 
.adds, ''A glass of ice water may remain perceptibly 
cold in the stomach for from one-quarter to one-half 
1 "Applied Physiology." 



INSTRUCTION IN PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 2 25 

an hour, and its effects upon the movements of diges- 
tion may last much longer." It has been said that 
more people suffer from overeating than from eating 
too little. 

The following rules for eating are suggested: ''Chew 
a mouthful to paste and swallow it before taking an- 
other." ''Stop as soon as the taste of plain food 
begins to fail." "Allow four or five hours to elapse 
before eating again." Added suggestions by Overton 
are worthy of consideration: 

"i. Eating food for mere pleasure is intemperance. 

2. Eating too much, too rapidly, or too often is in- 
temperance. 

3. As a result of intemperate eating, acid fermenta- 
tion often occurs in the stomach, producing discomfort 
and sickness. 

4. Hunger indicates the need of food, and taste 
indicates the kind. 

5. When only plain food is eaten, these two signs are 
correct guides in eating." 

5. Temperance Instruction. — Whether or not alcohol 
is a food is a disputed point. That it is a great danger 
and is often an evil to the human race is not disputed. 
Although it is not practicable to enter upon a scien- 
tific discussion of alcohol with children in the pubhc 
school, it is clear that the evils and dangers connected 
with its use as a beverage can and should be pointed 
out in language that they can understand. 

Such instruction is within the province of the school 
from both a physical and a moral standpoint, and it 
is its duty as well to inform the pupils as to the effect 
of strong drink upon the human system and as to the 



226 teaching: its aims and methods 

danger of forming the drink habit. While little good 
may be done from a scientific treatment of alcohol 
with children, there are certain lessons that may effec- 
tively be taught. These are: 

1. Alcohol is a poison that often attacks the nerve 
centers, affects the brain, undermines the constitution, 
and makes a wreck of men. 

2. It is apt to destroy the will power, making its 
victim incapable of continued successful and useful 
occupation. 

3. It incapacitates for work, thus compelling em- 
ployers of labor to reject persons who drink. 

4. It often robs a man of ambition, making him 
useless to society and often a burden upon it. 

5. Its continued use develops an evil habit that 
makes a man a slave, and which is very difficult to 
break. 

6. It destroys the moral sense, often making the 
father cruel to his family and indifferent to the most 
sacred obligations. 

7. It often leads to crime, as a large proportion of 
the inmates of prisons trace their downfall directly or 
indirectly to the influence of strong drink. 

8. Experiments show that even if taken in small 
quantities it diminishes the efficiency, destroys the 
power of sustained effort, lessens the abiUty to resist 
disease, degrades the moral sense, and shortens Hfe. 

9. It is a great danger, claiming many victims every 
year, destroying homes, and debasing, making weak, 
incapable, and often worthless the unfortunate who 
have been caught in its toils. 

Surely if the school is to prepare children for com- 



INSTRUCTION IN PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 227 

plete living, for efficiency; if it is to give them the 
ability to adjust themselves to life, it if is to bring out 
the best that is in them in order to make them master- 
ful in their environment, it must teach them concerning 
the effect and danger of strong drink. Discussions 
of lessons like the above will have a greater influence 
upon the temperance of future men and women than 
a purely academic treatment of the nature of alcohol, 
a study of the anatomy of the human body, or even 
an exhibition of pictures of the stomach diseased by 
alcohol. Temperance instruction in the public schools, 
which has been carried on for the past quarter of a 
century has not done so much to check the drink- 
evil as was prophesied and devoutly hoped for. This, 
too, in spite of the fact that no class of people in the 
United States more strongly inculcates temperance, 
both in theory and practice, than the more than half 
a million school teachers. 

Temperance text-books have been placed in their 
hands, and these they have faithfully attempted to 
follow, but as emphasis in these books has been put 
upon the scientific phase of the question, rather than 
upon the moral and practical side, it has been difficult 
to interest the children in the subject. A discussion 
of such topics as have just been outlined would be 
interesting, would find abundant illustrations, and would 
be real temperance instruction. The scientific study 
of alcohol belongs to maturer students who can utilize 
the laboratory. 

6. Dangers of Narcotics. — Most boys at some period 
of their lives, usually at about twelve to fourteen years 
of age, get a notion to smoke. Stringent laws against 



2 28 TEACHING: ITS AIMS AND METHODS 

the sale of cigarettes to young boys have failed in their 
purpose. Boys think it is smart or manly to use 
tobacco. They see other boys of their age doing it; 
they are at an age when they crave something new; 
they have a desire to imitate others, especially older boys. 
They are therefore wiUing to undergo a painful appren- 
ticeship in order to acquire the ability to use tobacco. 
No one can understand this desire and this heroism 
unless that one has been a boy. The approach to 
this question should be radically different from the 
approach to the drink question, and here is where many 
teachers have made a mistake. In a sense, narcotics 
and drink belong in the same class. Both, so far as 
the child is concerned, form habits hard to break, 
lower moral standards, undermine the health, prevent 
growth, and weaken the intellect. But to put the 
two on the same basis defeats all legitimate efforts to 
restrain boys from the use of tobacco. The use of 
strong drink, if not an evil in itself, is a great danger 
to the individual, and often affects many others. With 
most adults tobacco is not an evil, for it affects neither 
their health nor their moral life. If it is detrimental 
to the health, no man has a right to use it any more 
than he has a right to eat any kind of food that is 
detrimental. There is just as much sin in the one case 
as in the other and no more. But with growing 
children tobacco affects the brain, the heart, the lungs, 
the sight, the smell, the voice, and the nerves. It 
attacks the nerve centers, causing weakness of memory, 
and it prevents physical growth. The term ''cigarette 
fiend" unfortunately is so well known and finds such 
frequent illustration in the boys and young men about 



INSTRUCTION IN PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 229 

our towns, that it needs no description. Too much 
cannot be done against this evil. 

I have said that there is a difference to be made in 
combating the drink and the tobacco evil. The former 
is a danger to all; the latter is a danger to children, 
but not necessarily a danger to adults. 

It is of no use to tell the boy that smoking is a sin. 
He will not believe it, for perhaps his father and many 
other men who have his confidence smoke, and the 
teacher has no right to destroy that confidence. A 
gentleman who has three sons took each of his boys, 
when they had reached the age at which most boys 
want to experiment with tobacco, and talked to them 
after this manner: "Charles, I would rather you 
would not smoke until you have reached your growth. 
Tobacco is bad for growing boys. When you have 
become a man, you can do as you please." He also 
gave examples of the bad effects of tobacco among 
boys they knew. He made no apology for his own 
habit of smoking, for there was none to make, and his 
boys did not expect any. None of his boys smoked, 
and two of them have completed college without 
acquiring the habit. Another gentleman followed the 
practice of giving boys in whom he was interested 
twenty-five dollars upon reaching their majority if they 
had abstained from tobacco. If they chose to take 
it up after that, it did not disturb him in the least, for 
they had passed the point of danger from its use. 

To repeat, then, and to summarize in a word, the atti- 
tude that the teacher or the parent should take in regard 
to narcotics is that their use is bad for the physical 
growth of the young. Abundant examples of the truth 



230 teaching: its aims and methods 

of this can be found in every school and every com- 
munity. On the other hand, the use of strong drink 
is a danger and an evil to people of all ages, old as 
well as young. Such distinction will be likely to make 
the instruction in both far more effective than it is 
when both alike are classed as evils. By frequent 
talks, by the use of concrete illustrations, the teacher 
can do much to inculcate real temperance; far more, 
indeed, than is being accompHshed by following the 
courses marked out in works on temperance physiology. 
It seems to me that this is the proper method to pur- 
sue, not only with alcohol, but also with the other 
topics that fall under the head of physiology and 
hygiene. The teacher should possess a handbook on 
physiology and hygiene, for personal use, in which 
details which cannot be presented in a book of this 
kind are treated. It is the duty of the school to take 
the lead in these matters, for they affect the well-being 
not alone of the pupils but also of the people of the 
community in general. Hence teachers must be intelli- 
gent, informed, and interested in this question. Many 
of these things cannot be specified in a course of study. 
But if the teacher is impressed with her duty and re- 
sponsibility in these matters, and is active in promul- 
gating such lessons, she may be a great blessing to the 
people whom she serves. In a later chapter I shall 
discuss more fully foods and other topics connected 
with health and hygiene. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE IMPORTANCE OF MANUAL TRAINING 

The Change in Industrial Conditions. — There is unrest 
in the public mind with reference to the product of 
our schools. This shows itself in the press, in maga- 
zine articles, in platform discussions, and in the direct 
criticisms of parents. That this criticism is not always 
just has already been shown, but the most thoughtful 
educators recognize that the schools have not fully 
kept apace with the demands of the times. Teachers 
who understand the problem of education and the new 
and increased burdens laid upon the school are earnestly 
seeking to correct mistakes, and to give the youth of 
our land those things which will best prepare them to 
cope successfully with the problems which our new 
and strenuous civilization presents. 

More than a quarter of a century ago, Dr. James 
McAlister prophetically said, ''I am fully persuaded, 
therefore, that some radical changes will have to be 
made in the character of our public education. I must 
repeat again that these changes do not mean the ex- 
tinction of the classical system. The demand is simply 
that the primary schools shall be made to conform to 
the existing necessities of the people, and, side by side 
with higher institutions of learning, there shall be 
established schools where the sciences, in their relations 
to the arts and industries, shall be made specific 



232 TEACHING: ITS AIMS AND METHODS 

branches of instruction and training." This pioneer 
appeal has not been without effect, as is evidenced by 
the introduction of manual training very generally as a 
part of the curriculum of the elementary schools, by 
the founding of manual training high schools, and by 
the establishment of many industrial schools. 

We say that modern life has injected many new 
problems into the work of education. Under former 
conditions the child had plenty of manual exercise. 
A large proportion of the people lived in the country 
and gained their livelihood with their hands. The boy 
made his own playthings — his sled, his water-wheel, 
his top, and his bow and arrows. He knew the use 
of tools and early became acquainted with the many 
requirements of farm and country life. His intimate 
acquaintance with animals awakened broad sympathies 
for the weak and taught him responsibility to depend- 
ent creatures. It thus developed his life and character 
and opened to him a knowledge never to be gained 
from the books. His experiences made him resourceful, 
inventive, originative, industrious, and economical. 
They formed for him a sturdy frame, taught him to 
accept responsibility and faithfully discharge it, and 
gave him a true estimate of life. What wonder that 
the farm has produced more than its proportion of the 
great men of the country, — the leaders not only in 
husbandry, but also in the fields of industry, com- 
merce, and business, in the arena of political life, and 
in the great professions. 

"The perfectly educated man," says Dr. McAlister, 
"is he whose facile hand follows obediently the clear 
and ready promptings of a well-disciplined brain. The 



THE IMPORTANCE OF MANUAL TRAINING 233 

hand is the most marvelous instrument in the world; it 
is the necessary complement of the mind in dealing with 
matter in all its varied forms. It is the hand that 
rounded Peter's dome; it is the hand that carved those 
statues in marble and bronze, that painted those 
pictures in palace and church which we travel into 
distant lands to admire; it is the hand that builds the 
ships which sail the seas, laden with the commerce of 
the world; it is the hand that constructs the machinery 
which moves the busy industries of this age of steam; 
it is the hand that enables the mind to realize in a 
thousand ways its highest imaginings, its profoundest 
reasonings, its most practical inventions. . . . Why 
should not an organ which forms so vital a part of 
man's being receive a due share of attention in pre- 
paring him for the duties and responsibilities of citi- 
zenship? " 

Definition of Manual Training. — The need of manual 
training is quite generally recognized, but there is 
still much haziness as to what is meant by the term. 
It has been defined by some as the acquirement of mere 
dexterity. According to this view penmanship, han- 
dling the knife and fork in eating, dressing one's self, 
playing games, a thousand and one other activities, 
are manual training. Surely manual training must 
mean something more than the mere gaining of control 
of the hand. The purpose of manual training is to 
develop the motor activities, to furnish the child with a 
knowledge of the materials he is to use, to teach him the 
processes of construction, and to give him dexterity in 
the use of tools and in manipulating materials. Skilful 
use of the hand is not sufficient; there must be added 



234 teaching: its aims and methods 

a knowledge of material. We are daily called upon to 
judge the value of material things, — of woods in the 
furniture we buy, in the houses we build, in the imple- 
ments we construct; of metals in our tools, our machin- 
ery, our edifices; of the earth itself in its soils, its 
rocks, its clay materials, and its sand. Ability cor- 
rectly to judge enables us to appreciate the adapta- 
bility and value of things in meeting the purposes for 
which they are intended. Thus manual training in- 
volves knowledge as well as dexterity. 

'^ Manual training," says Dr. McAlister, ''aims at 
general results. Its purpose is to develop human beings 
on the executive side of their nature as well as the 
receptive. Its aim is to equip a boy so that when he 
gets into the world he will be able to do as well as 
to think. ... It seeks to train the hand and the eye, 
not for the purpose of superseding the action of the 
mind, but as the efficient agents of the mind in gaining 
a truer and ampler knowledge of the world." In 
training the motor activities the brain is stimulated 
and the powers of the body are brought to obey the 
mandates of the will. It therefore belongs to the 
curriculum of the common school, which seeks to de- 
velop the whole child, as truly as arithmetic, geog- 
raphy, history, or reading belong to it. Parents 
do not always understand this educational purpose. 
''Please excuse my son from the manual training 
class," wrote an intelligent father to a school principal. 

I do not expect him to be a mechanic and therefore 
prefer that he take" something useful." It must be 
insisted that manual training is not for the purpose 
of making carpenters, masons, blacksmiths, or prepar- 



THE IMPORTANCE OF MANUAL TRAINING 235 

ing for any specific vocation or trade. It is designed 
for the student of the humanities as well as for the 
student who may devote himself to the field of force 
and matter. Graduates of manual training high 
schools who enter the university prove this very con- 
clusively by the way they sustain themselves, even 
in the classical studies. They generally hold their 
own with the best in their classes, showing that the 
claim that ^^hand instruction, no matter of what kind, 
if adapted to the age of the pupil and properly con- 
ducted, can be made disciplinary and a valuable 
adjunct to primary literary studies; and that a proper 
amount of hand study can be introduced into our 
pubhc schools without impairing the educational value 
of the studies now taught" is well founded. A mo- 
ment's reflection will show that the lessons taught by 
manual training are really of more practical utility to 
most people than those of any other subject of the 
common school curriculum, with the single exception 
of reading. Knowledge of materials, dexterity in the 
use of tools, and familiarity with the processes of 
construction are called into requisition in the manifold 
duties of everyday life and therefore are of the greatest 
practical account. 

Industrial vs. Manual Training. — Another source 
of confusion is found in the failure to distinguish 
between manual and industrial training. I have 
shown that manual training involves the develop- 
ment of the motor activities, the acquirement of skill 
and dexterity in the use of tools, the mastery of 
processes of construction, and a knowledge of materials, 
and that it is purely educational. Industrial training. 



236 teaching: its aims and methods 

on the other hand, seeks to prepare the youth to earn 
his Hving by means of the manual and industrial 
arts. Manual training is necessary for a general 
preparation for life, giving a mastery over environ- 
ment, and it is as valuable to the man who may 
choose a sedentary career as to the man who may 
enter the shop or the factory. Industrial training 
definitely lays the foundation for a career in the fields 
of commerce, engineering, manufacturing, and other 
industrial enterprises. While it lays the foundation 
for these occupations, it does not specifically teach a 
trade. It shows the underlying principles of industry, 
gives a certain amount of skill in their application, and 
thus prepares the student, not only to choose his 
vocation with intelhgence, but also to enter upon it 
with increased probability of success. Manual training 
is designed for every child purely as an educational 
means: industrial training is designed for those who 
intend to enter those vocations involving the utiliza- 
tion of force and matter, the industries. Of course 
industrial training is also educational, but its specific 
purpose is limited to one field rather than to broad, 
general culture. 

Now the trade school also has its field, and this, 
certainly, is neither that of manual nor that of indus- 
trial training. It aims to prepare for some definite 
trade, as carpentry, bricklaying, molding, plumbing, 
dressmaking, etc., particularly some occupation em- 
ploying the hands. 

To distinguish clearly among these three kinds of 
schools we would say in a word: 

I. Manual training utilizes, guides, and emphasizes 



THE IMPORTANCE OF MANUAL TRAINING 237 

the dynamic forces of the child and gives him a knowl- 
edge of his material environment. 

2. The industrial school teaches the pupil the foun- 
dations of technical industry and trains him to apply 
them. 

3. The trade school prepares for some particular 
mechanical trade. Professor Woodward says, "So long 
as the student gives his mind to an exercise or process, 
it is educational. His muscles respond to his will, 
and the nerve-centers of his brain are active with 
excitement." And Dr. Balliet adds, ''But after these 
muscular movements become automatic by practice, 
the brain relegates them almost wholly to the spinal 
cord. Such movements cease to be of educational 
value when they are no longer directed consciously by 
the brain. Any process in manual training ought to 
stop when it ceases to be brain work. Here we have 
the difference between the manual training school 
and the trade school. The manual training school 
stops when the point mentioned is reached. Its 
purpose is purely educational. The trade school con- 
tinues the training in skill even after the process is 
relegated to the spinal cord, in order that the person 
may develop the power of producing in a given length 
of time for the market as large a quantity as possible 
of goods of a high grade of finish. Its purpose is 
economic." ''The object of manual training," further 
remarks Professor Woodward, "is mastery, — mastery 
of the external world, mastery of tools, mastery of 
materials, mastery of processes." Technical drawing, 
designing, architecture, commercial activities, engi- 
neering, and mechanics belong to the field of industrial 



238 teaching: its aims and methods 

training. Carpentry, plumbing, dressmaking, and 
tailoring belong to the trade school. 

I have discussed these three schools at length be- 
cause there is so much mistiness in regard to them, 
and because it is of greatest importance that the teacher 
should have clearly set before him just the problem 
he is to meet. We may now devote our attention to 
the single question of manual training. 

The Aim of Manual Training. — In a report of 
a commission on Industrial and Technical Education 
to the Massachusetts legislature, the following sugges- 
tions are made: ''There is no doubt that manual 
training develops the intellect, fosters morals, quickens 
the perceptions, and stimulates and makes accurate the 
powers of observation. Often school subjects do the 
same, each in its own way, and all in a general way. 
A general statement of this character therefore does 
not suffice in discussing the purpose of manual training. 
First of all its aim is the training of the hand to obey 
the will. It calls for dynamic, for active, employment 
in contradistinction to the static or passive scheme of 
education. 

"Second, it trains the eye to see accurately and 
furnishes knowledge of materials. In the selection 
and manipulation of materials employed in his work 
the pupil gains a knowledge of them, the eye becomes 
accustomed to examine joints, angles, and curves in 
the pieces constructed; the sense of proportion and 
beauty, as well as fitness, is cultivated; and a mastery 
of details of objects about him is gained. Such 
acquirements are of inestimable value, not only from 
an educational standpoint, but also for their practical 



THE IMPORTANCE OF MANUAL TRAINING 239 

utility. They furnish an excellent equipment for 
knowing the intrinsic value of articles for use either 
in the home or in business relations. 

"Third, such training is also essential to a complete 
development of the brain." 

Other eminent authorities substantiate the same view. 
Dr. Eliot asserts, ''Manual training not only trains the 
eye and hand, but develops the habit of accuracy and 
thoroughness in every kind of work. It develops the 
mental faculties of some boys better than books do"; 
and Dr. Hall adds, ''No kind of education so demon- 
strably develops the brain as hand training." In 
considering the mental value of manual training, 
Professor Woodward says, "it runs into every exer- 
cise the student has in mathematics, in language, in 
literature, in science, in ethics, and in art." 

The Place of Manual Training. — Some writers, like 
Dewey, James, Hall, Wundt, and Baldwin, teach that 
"the child's thought is never dissociated from his 
muscles; that every idea has a motor aspect; that 
mind is in one sense a middle term between the senses 
and the muscles; that an idea is not complete until 
it is realized in action." If this be true, manual 
training should be introduced very early into the school 
course. It is well known that the young child loves 
to make things, and if he is furnished with tools and 
materials he will gladly spend a large part of his time 
in constructing various objects. With blocks he will 
build, with paper and scissors he will cut out many 
forms, with tools and boards he will make boxes or 
houses, and with sand he will mold. Of course his 
product will be crude, but he is doing something him- 



240 teaching: its aims and methods 

self, he is learning lo use tools, he is getting acquainted 
with materials, he is satisfying a natural instinct, 
little attention should be given to technique at the 
outset. Indeed, technique is "best acquired in con- 
nc( lion with a mastery of the content which is to be 
expressed by means of it," as modern teachers of 
music, drawing, and penmanship have discovered. 
I'or example, the child is allowed to express thought in 
writing while his penmanship is still crude; the pupil 
in music is not held to practice of the scales without 
securing some relief in playing music that appeals to 
him; llic drawing teacher, while not unmindful of 
technical work, introduces objects of interest to draw. 
It is the customary practice to introduce manual 
training in the late grammar and high school grades, 
if it be true that '^an idea is not complete until it is 
realized in action," that the dynamic is the strong 
feature of the young child's educaticjn, does it not 
follow that some form of manual training should be 
introduced into the primary grades? Who has not 
noticed that children, even in their early school years, 
are eager to construct, to handle tools ? Give a boy 
a box of tools when he is ten years old and he will 
find employment for many hours. He will make his 
playthings, he will construct houses and boats and 
other things that interest him. The chances are, unless 
he has a strong mechanical tendency, that by the 
lime he is fifteen or sixteen years old his interest in 
tools will have disappeared. Therefore it seems to me 
that Professor O'Shea is right when he says, "With the 
[)rogress of the child through the schools, manual 
training as a form of motor activity should occupy a 



THE IMPORTANCE OF MANUAL TRAINING 24 1 

less and less important place, except for those pupils 
whose wills in maturity are to be manifested primarily 
in energizing and coordinating muscular action." 
And further he adds, ''This does not mean, however, 
that manual training should be entirely abandoned; 
it means simply that in the higher departments of 
education it is to receive less and less emphasis, except 
for those whose work involves continued use of hand 
rather than of head primarily." 

A neighbor just back of me has three boys whose 
activities it is very interesting to watch. For years 
there were few waking hours when they were out of 
school that one could not hear the sound of hammer, 
saw, or other tool in the hands of these young fellows. 
Now they are well along in their teens and one rarely 
hears the noise of tools, — their activities are turned 
in other directions. I think that almost every man, if 
he will reflect as to his own boyhood experience, will 
recall that he had a strong instinct for making things 
in his early youth which diminished and possibly dis- 
appeared in his later boyhood. 

Another reason for emphasizing manual training in 
these earlier years is that it is preeminently the period 
of character-formation. The child's character should 
be pretty well established by the time he reaches the 
high school. Professor James wisely remarks concerning 
laboratory and shop work, *'They engender a habit 
of observation, a knowledge of the difference between 
accuracy and vagueness. . . . They confer precision; 
because if you are doing a thing you must do it defi- 
nitely right or definitely wrong. They give honesty; 
for when you express yourself by making things, and 



242 teaching: its aims and MK'IHODS 

not by using words, it becomes impossible to dissimu- 
late your vagueness or ignorance by ambiguity. They 
beget a habit of self-reliance; they keep the interest 
and attention always cheerfully engaged, and reduce 
Ihe teacher's (liscii)linary function to a minimum.'* 
'I'hese things surely are the fundamentals of character, 
:ind anything that fosters them should have a large 
j)lace at this i)arti(ular period of the child's life. The 
truth is that the judgment of tlic philosopher and the 
psychologist is amply sustained in every school in which 
manual training has been introduced; incorrigible chil- 
dren become tractable and (obedient, and many are 
reformed and saved by this means. IJut they sln^uld 
be given this form of instruction in the early adoles- 
cent years or previous to them before they can become 
confirmed in evil ways. 

Methods and Topics in Manual Training. — The 
method of manual training, from the very nature of 
the subject, suggests itself. The child must do the 
things himself; there is no other way and no one would 
think of teaching this subject in any other way. T 
shall therefore suggest the things to be attempted, 
without outlining any systematic course of study. 
That must be determined by the facilities available, 
by the teachers at command, and by the i)eculiar 
demands of each locality. There are certain funda- 
mental activities, however, that should be introduced 
in every school system. Some argue under the Cul- 
ture I^poch Theory that the child must be taken 
through all the steps the human race has passed 
through in its evolutionary development. We cer- 
tainly agree with Professor Woodward when he says, 



THE IMPORTANCE OF MANUAL TRAINING 243 

" Manual training which is approached from the 
culture epoch or evolutionary standpoint is unpeda- 
gogical, because it attempts that which is psychologi- 
cally impossible. It is not in accordance with the 
child's way of approach. It does not minister to 
the child's most common and imperative needs." A 
child likes to do what his playmates do. Imagine a 
father attempting to show his boy the way baseball 
was played half a century ago. Again, it would not 
interest the boy in the least that primitive men played 
ball in a much simpler way. How is the game played 
now? How do his comrades play? How is he to get 
the knowledge and skill that will secure him a place 
on the team? These are the questions that will interest 
every boy, and it is utter foolishness to put him through 
obsolete practices. 

The child employs '' short cuts " in his development 
whenever he can, just as a man does in his under- 
takings. The age of the spinning-wheel and the 
hand-loom is gone forever. Machinery has revolu- 
tionized the trades and occupations of men and intro- 
duced new ideas and relations. The best thing the 
school can do is to fit the child into his present environ- 
ment, and to do this there is plenty of suitable and 
interesting material. 

This does not mean that mat-weaving, basketry, and 
other primitive arts may not be employed in the in- 
struction of young children. They love to do this 
work, and for a time it has an educational value. The 
protest is against a systematic course in manual train- 
ing which seeks to carry the child through the slow 
processes of industrial development that the world 



244 TEACHING: ITS AIMS AND METHODS 

has gone through in the ages of the past. The child 
inevitably tires of it, as experience has proven, because 
it is unnatural, unpsychological, and has no practical 
value. 

It is urged that not only does the school ''prepare 
for life," but that "the school is life." Life is real, 
not imaginary, and there is an abundance of live 
material to offer the pupils which will meet their 
educational needs. Manual training from its very 
nature, from the activities it stimulates, from the 
practical, everyday things it deals with, furnishes the 
means for meeting this utiHtarian demand. With 
these general suggestions as an introduction, we may 
outline the work in manual training that should be 
given in the elementary school. I may repeat that 
no attempt is made to present a systematic course 
of study, but rather to indicate the subjects to be 
taught, inasmuch as the arrangement of courses must 
depend upon the facilities and needs of each school. 

I. Basketry, clay -modeling, etc. — Paper-cutting, weav- 
ing, basketry, and clay-modehng are suited to the 
needs of young children and are begun in the kin- 
dergarten and primary grades. They represent the 
cruder forms of manual training, do not call for the 
finished product, and therefore are suited to young 
children. They furnish interesting occupation and at 
the same time begin the development of the motor- 
activities, a development which becomes more and more 
systematic as the children gain control of the hand. 
So little apparatus is required that this work can be 
introduced into any school, no matter how limited the 
facilities. Clay-modeling is always interesting to chil- 



THE IMPORTANCE OF MANUAL TRAINING 245 

dren who love to play with 'Mirt." To appreciate 
this natural instinct, one has only to observe children 
at the seashore who will busy themselves for hours 
playing in the sand. The authorities of German cities 
always set apart a portion of the public parks for 
children, in which sand piles are furnished, and some 
American cities have adopted the same idea. Clay- 
modeHng is a most useful exercise and is entirely 
feasible in every primary school. I have seen some 
excellent work produced in rural schools with very 
scanty equipment. Various kinds of fruit and vege- 
tables, tools and other objects of interest were modeled, 
thus developing both the practical and the aesthetic sense. 

2. Drawing and design. — Every young child loves 
to draw. There is a sense in which drawing and pen- 
manship are alike, since both fall within the scope of 
general educational purpose. All elementary schools 
teach this kind of drawing. But when drawing is 
employed more technically, in so far as it seeks to 
develop the visual perceptions and give the hand skill 
in manipulating, and when it is used in designing and 
making working-drawings from which models and 
objects are constructed, it may clearly be considered 
as belonging to the field of manual training. Indeed, 
it is one of the most important adjuncts of training in 
the shop, not only as a means of expression, but also 
of originating, designing, clearly marking out, and 
making models of the work to be done. This, too, 
can be introduced at little expense, the one point 
being that it requires a teacher trained in this special 
field. 

3. Wood-working and metal-working. — In this con- 



246 teaching: its aims and methods 

nection the estimates of quantities, value, and uses of 
various kinds of woods and metals are learned, the 
ability properly to turn them into more or less finished 
articles acquired, the dexterity in the use of tools 
secured, and a considerable knowledge of materials 
obtained. For, as we have seen, manual training must 
not only give dexterity of hand, but also must culti- 
vate the judgment, must stimulate activity of the mind, 
must furnish that knowledge which gives mastery over 
environment. 

In the necessary employment of measurements, in 
the selecting, comparing, adapting, and utilizing of 
materials, in the cooperation of eye, hand, and mind, 
the judgment and reasoning, as well as the observing 
powers, will receive the very best training. There are 
no other subjects in the school course so well adapted 
to give this important and necessary training. The 
equipment in this work is necessarily expensive, and 
in many schools prohibitive, but some of the simpler 
forms can be introduced into every school at very small 
expense. 

4. Working in brass and copper. — The more ad- 
vanced pupils may be given sheet-brass and copper 
work in which more finished articles are made after 
original designs. Etching, polishing, buffmg, etc., may 
be introduced when pupils possess sufficient strength 
and maturity of body and mind, have attained some 
degree of facility in the use of tools, and are capable 
of sustained and patient perseverance. Articles of 
beauty and utility can thus be made. Carving and 
bookbinding are sometimes added when a taste for 
the work is evident. 



THE IMPORTANCE OF MANUAL TRAINING 247 

The limit of the amount of manual training given 
will depend upon the time that can be devoted to it, 
the equipment available, the materials furnished, the 
needs of each class of pupils, and upon the occupations 
that chiefly employ the people of the community. 
For while manual training is purely educational in its 
intent, and therefore is essential to the development of 
all children, there is no reason why it may not be so 
directed as to have a great bearing upon the future 
occupations of many of the pupils in any given com- 
munity. 



CHAPTER XVII 

TRAINING IN THE HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

The Increasing Duties of the School. — In the old- 
time home the girl learned from her mother the art 
of housekeeping. Unfortunately the entire work of 
education of girls as well as boys is being forced upon 
the school, and many lessons which ought to be learned 
in the home and which can better be learned there 
than elsewhere, must now be taught in the school or 
they never will be learned. It is true that woman is 
called to multifarious outside activities, — social, re- 
ligious, commercial, and political, — such as were not 
within her sphere in former times and which absorb 
a large part of her life. The great changes in modern 
civilization have given woman an enlarged place in 
the affairs of human life, have in the best sense emanci- 
pated and given her a place that justly belongs to her 
and which she is admirably fitted to fill. No one 
would check this movement, even if it were possible, 
for it makes for a better civilization and is an evidence 
of progress. The highest test of civilization in any 
people is found in their esteem for women. 

But while fully recognizing woman's new sphere, 
and while according to her the right and duty to par- 
ticipate in such activities as tend to broaden her own 
life, and in such interests as utilize her capabilities for 
the advancement of every good cause, one can but 



TRAINING IN THE HOUSEHOLD ARTS 249 

deplore her tendency to neglect the domestic arts. 
For, after all, the highest and noblest function of 
woman is as the ''Queen of the Home," training her 
boys and girls in the practical duties of life, inspiring 
them with noble ideals, and making the home the 
most beautiful place on earth to all its inmates. 

A large part of our girls are growing up ignorant of 
those domestic arts which are essential to the happi- 
ness and well-being of the home. School work ab- 
sorbs the time of girls so completely that there is 
little time left for the homely and necessary duties 
of the household. The right of the school so to 
monopolize the child's time and strength may seriously 
be questioned. But it is the office of the school to 
teach everything that is necessary for practical life, 
and to supply as far as may be the instruction that 
other agencies of education often neglect. Hence the 
school is obliged to teach domestic science. It may 
also be suggested that even where attention is paid 
in the home to this side of a girl's education, very 
often the mother is lacking in the knowledge, skill, and 
patience to give suitable instruction in domestic arts. 
Few housewives are acquainted with scientific methods 
of cooking, with the nutritive value of foodstuffs, or 
with real household economy. Here is an open field 
therefore for the school. 

There should be courses showing the nature, nutritive 
value, suitability, and preparation, of foods; courses in 
the hygienic and sanitary features of the household 
together with some knowledge of how to treat the 
common diseases; in the choice, making, and care of 
clothing; in the care of children; and in such other 



250 teaching: its aims and methods 

duties as arise in a well-regulated home. This field 
offers suitable and interesting employment for girls, 
while boys are given other forms of manual training. 
Let the school and the home work hand in hand, the 
former teaching the scientific facts and the methods 
which further progress, while the latter supplements 
this instruction by actual practice, such as is not 
possible in the limited time and means at the com- 
mand of the school. 

What is Domestic Science? — Domestic science means 
more than the mere art of cooking. It has to do with 
all matters connected with physical well-being, such as 
sanitation or cleanliness, the nature, use, and nutritive 
value of foods, the art of marketing, etc., as well as with 
cooking. Home economy, however, is a broader term 
in that it includes all sides of the home and its man- 
agement. The home is not merely a place in which 
to eat and sleep. But it is a place in which gather 
all the sacred and sympathetic influences of those 
closely related by the ties of blood and kinship, — of 
husband and wife, of parents and children, of brothers 
and sisters. Here it is that children are born and 
reared; where the struggles of existence are shared; 
where mutual love and forbearance lighten the sorrows 
that must come; where the infinite patience and sacri- 
fice of parents indelibly fix in the memory incidents 
ever to be cherished and held sacred; where the chil- 
dren, if fortunately there be a number, learn lessons of 
unselfishness, of forgiveness, of mutual confidence, of 
never-failing love for each other, and of broader sym- 
pathy for all humanity. No matter where it is 
located, no matter whether it is a cottage or a palace, 



TRAINING IN THE HOUSEHOLD ARTS 25 1 

whether lowly or exalted, it is home and therefore it 
is ever dear. 

We may roam over the world; we may go to the 
seashore or to the mountains; we may sit at tables 
loaded with luxuries in the finest hotels; we may 
mingle with the gay multitudes; but the real luxury, 
the real joy, the real comfort, the real happiness, is 
experienced when we come back again to our own 
home. Unhappy the man or woman who has no home 
or who fails to appreciate its full meaning. 

A knowledge of home economics is far more im- 
portant in making the place where we live a real 
home than many realize. Not only must there be 
mutual sympathy among its inmates, but there must 
be a knowledge of those things which make for com- 
fort and health and also a practical use of that knowl- 
edge. Many a man goes to the bright and cheery 
saloon, not because he craves drink, but because his 
home is wanting in the elements above pictured. 
Many a boy or girl goes upon the street or to ques- 
tionable resorts at night because the place where they 
live is not home. A mother of nine children, four 
boys and five girls, used to say in the evening when 
the boys began to be uneasy and the street began 
to lure them, ''Girls, entertain your brothers." There 
was no trouble to keep them in, because the amuse- 
ments that interested young people were allowed and 
there was real home life. There are influences that 
touch the spirit, which of course are primarily essen- 
tial, but those that touch the physical also must not be 
ignored. 

Our grandmothers carded the wool or the flax, spun 



252 teaching: its aims and methods 

it into yarn, wove it into doth, and finally made it 
into garments for the family. The wonderful devel- 
opment of machinery has changed all this. The 
raw material is sold and the finished product is pur- 
chased ready for use. So, too, the housewife is no 
longer required to care for the milk, to churn it and 
make it into butter, but the milk is sold to the cream- 
ery and thus the heavy labor is escaped. This by no 
means indicates that she can escape the responsibilities 
of the home. New duties are thrust upon her by the 
complicated requirements of modern civilization. She 
must know how to manage servants, to rear and care 
for her children, to direct the economies of the house- 
hold — in a word, she must be a helpmate to her 
husband, thus contributing as much as he does, if 
not more, to the prosperity of the family through her 
administration of the internal affairs of the home. 

If the school can aid in a preparation for such 
efficiency it certainly will do an important service. 
It must teach the girls who will have charge of the 
homes of tomorrow those things which will make the 
management of those homes not only an intelligible 
but an interesting task. If we can implant in the 
schoolgirls of today the knowledge of how to care for 
the home and the love of the work necessary to make 
that home a success, we shall have solved a great 
problem. 

And women are learning this lesson. In a little 
work on "Home Economics"^ we read: "It is not, 
perhaps, too much to say that much of woman's early 
work in chemistry was a more or less indefinite playing 

^ Bevier and Usher, 



TRAINING IN THE HOUSEHOLD ARTS 253 

with test-tubes in which one of three results was ex- 
pected — a beautiful color, a bad odor, or an explosion. 
She was not long in discovering that her brother took 
chemistry and bacteriology, not because someone had 
told him that it ought to form a part of a liberal 
education, but because he expected to use this knowl- 
edge later in his work with soil or in the dairy. Women 
were thus helped to see that there was a field of applied 
science for women as well as for men. They realized 
later that the laws of heat could be illustrated by the 
kitchen-range quite as adequately as by the steam- 
engine, that the Hfe history of bacteria could be studied 
in many household processes, and the chemistry of 
food was in many cases better suited to their needs 
than that of stories under the title 'determinative 
mineralogy.'" 

Quoting further from this book, ''When young ladies 
are taught the construction of their own bodies, and 
all the causes in domestic life which tend to weaken 
the constitution; when they are taught rightly to 
appreciate and learn the most beneficent and eco- 
nomical modes of performing all family duties, and of 
employing time and money; and when they perceive 
the time estimate accorded to those things by teachers 
and friends, the grand cause of this evil (that of de- 
spising domestic arts) will be removed. Women will 
be trained to secure, as of first importance, strong and 
healthy constitutions, and all those rules of thrift and 
economy that will make domestic duty easy and 
pleasant." 

The Sixth Annual Lake Placid Conference.— This con- 
ference on home economics adopted Mrs. Ellen H. 



254 teaching: its aims and methods 

Richards's ideals, for which home economics stands as 
follows : — 

1. ''The ideal home life for today unhampered by 
the traditions of the past. 

2. ''The utilization of all the resources of modern 
science to improve the home life. 

3. "The freedom of the home from the dominance 
of things and their due subordination to ideals. 

4. "The simplicity in material surroundings which 
will most free the spirit for the more important and 
permanent interests of the home and of society." 

The Scope of Home Economy. — It would be impossi- 
ble within the limits of this book to outline a course in 
home economy. The purpose here is rather to awaken 
an interest in this subject and show its supreme im- 
portance to the well-being, success, and happiness of 
the American people. If the view taken is correct it 
certainly is deserving of a place in our schools. For 
details of the work the reader must obtain a text-book 
on the subject. 

We may, however, briefly discuss some of the most 
important features to be considered : — 

I. Foods. — Many foods can now be purchased in 
a condition wholly or partially prepared for the table. 
We have breakfast foods, canned meats, soups, fruits, 
and vegetables in a great variety of forms which 
require little preparation for use. And yet, one could 
not live on these productions; there must be a knowl- 
edge of cooking, for most of the foods necessary to 
an appetizing, economical, and healthful diet are 
unprepared. "Scientific cooking depends upon an 
intelligent understanding of the chemistry of foods, and 



TRAINING IN THE HOUSEHOLD ARTS 255 

of the chemical and physical laws underlying the 
cooking processes." We all know of the famous 
cooking of some dishes by the colored '^ mammies" 
of the South, and most men recall with tender memo- 
ries the pies, shortcakes, pancakes, and stews that 
their mothers made, forgetting that they no longer 
possess a boy's appetite. But the ability to make these 
delicious dishes was acquired only by long and costly 
experience, and if there was failure, the cook did not 
know the reason for it. 

Miss Cochran says, ''To cook intelligently we must 
know the reason for each step. Why do egg and milk 
curdle if cooked at too high a temperature? Why is 
nine-tenths of the cream of tomato soup which is 
served, curdled? Why do many serve a pasty mass 
of rice instead of an attractive dish of fluffy grains? 
Why, if we wish pastry to be light and flaky, do we have 
the ingredients cold and then put the paste into a 
very hot oven? 

"For the answer to these and hundreds of other 
questions we turn to chemistry or physics. A knowl- 
edge of the composition of eggs and milk, and the 
properties of albumen, of the action of acids on the 
casein of milk, of the processes involved in the manipu- 
lation of rice, of the expansion of gases when subjected 
to heat, will prevent the common errors in cooking any 
of the dishes mentioned." 

An understanding of the nutritive value of foods will 
not only aid wonderfully in solving the problem of 
the high cost of living, but will also do much towards 
the production of a more vigorous race. It is not 
always the highest-priced cuts of meats that are most 



256 teaching: its aims and methods 

nutritious, and skill in utilizing every part so that 
there shall be no waste is one of the most important 
things be be learned. 

2. Marketing. — Much of the economy and success 
of household management depends upon the knowledge 
of how to market. Many a housewife turns this im- 
portant duty over to the cook or does her ordering 
through the telephone. It is far better to go to the 
market and make the selections needed, thus learning 
the prices and being sure of the quality of the pur- 
chases. Not only will money be saved, but a better 
grade of goods will be secured. There are few dealers 
that will not give better service if they meet the 
mistress face to face. She should study the grades of 
goods and learn to select what will just suit her pur- 
pose. Lessons upon choosing the cuts of meat, upon 
the characteristics of vegetables and fruits, upon the 
manner of determining whether a fowl is tender, or 
a fish wholesome, can easily be given in the school. 
Skilful marketing, which aids so materially in solving 
the problem of the high cost of living, is an art worthy 
of more attention than is usually given to it. 

3. Cooking. — The French are celebrated for utiliz- 
ing every particle of food, and by their skill in cooking; 
savory and wholesome dishes are prepared at little 
cost. "We never allow any part of a roast to come 
on the table a second time," boastfully asserted a house- 
wife, and thus perfectly good and wholesome food is 
thrown into the garbage. What utter foolishness! 
for not only are excellent cold cuts usually left, but the 
bones and other remnants can be made into delicious 
soup. American girls need to be taught the folly and 



TRAINING IN THE HOUSEHOLD ARTS 257 

waste of throwing away whatever is clean and whole- 
some and can be made into some other dish. Im- 
proper preparation of the food brought into the house, 
lack of knowledge as to how to make the most of 
material, and wastefulness from the table, are making 
the cost of Hving high and keeping many people poor. 

4. Harmony of foods. — There must not only be skill 
in preparing food, but there must also be knowl- 
edge of the suitability and harmony of foods. Here is 
seen the necessity of being acquainted with the chem- 
istry of foods. A course in home economics must in- 
clude a treatment of this subject. An improper mixing 
of foods that separately are wholesome is liable to 
cause indigestion and distress and thus utterly fail, 
and worse than fail, to perform the function of food, 
namely, to nourish and build up the body. It is not 
enough that food shall be appetizing. Lobster salad 
corned beef and cabbage, and ice cream are all appe- 
tizing, but mix these three in one sitting at the 
table, — and I have seen worse combinations, — and it 
will be a miracle if trouble does not follow. 

The serving of one type of foodstuff, however, to the 
exclusion of others, is even more dangerous than the 
improper mixing of food because it is more common. 
For instance, it is not uncommon to ffnd rice and 
potatoes served at the same meal. If meat or other 
protein food is served at the same time no harm may 
result; but if, as is often the case among the poor, 
there is an insufficiency of food containing protein and 
mineral matter, then all the family suffers more or 
less and the children are often dwarfed and deficient 
both physically and mentally. The only way to over- 



258 teaching: its aims and methods 

come these evils is to teach the needs of the body, 
the composition of the various foods, and the manner 
in which the body utilizes, or rather prepares for utili- 
zation, the food which is eaten. 

It is as much the duty of the housewife to offer a 
suitable and harmonious selection of foods as it is 
to prepare them well. Attention to this feature of 
household duty will preserve health, add immensely 
to the sum of human happiness, and lengthen life. 

5. Sanitation. — The importance of sanitation in the 
home is recognized in modern life, and as a conse- 
quence the home has been made far more comfortable 
and the period of longevity extended. Cleanhness, the 
care of garbage, attention to the plumbing and sewer- 
age, wholesome water, good air, the house-fly nuisance, 
and other matters connected with the household are 
of the greatest importance in conserving health. Many 
parents are either ignorant of these things or indifferent 
to them. It therefore behooves the school to furnish 
such instruction as will give an inteUigent conception 
of the dangers with which unsanitary conditions 
menace the home and to suggest practical remedies 
for them. 

6. Disease. — Closely connected with sanitation are 
the symptoms, nature, and treatment of the common- 
est diseases of childhood. It is not to be expected 
that the school shall teach how to treat dangerous 
diseases. But there are many simple illnesses of chil- 
dren that can be attended to in the home, and the dan- 
gerous symptoms of these should be understood. 
Every family cannot afford to call a doctor whenever 
one of the members is out of sorts, nor indeed is this 



TRAINING IN THE HOUSEHOLD ARTS 259 

necessary. First-aid remedies should be understood, 
and when the case does not readily yield to these, a 
doctor should be consulted. An especial caution is 
necessary, namely, that the call of the physician shall 
not be too long delayed. I am only urging that there 
shall be a knowledge of the simplest diseases and of 
the signs of danger. In a word, a knowledge of what 
might be called home nursing. Especial attention 
should be given to training in how to carry out the 
doctor's orders. Everyone should know how to take 
the pulse rate, to estimate fairly accurately the tempera- 
ture, and to determine the presence of the fever which 
may accompany scarlet fever, diphtheria, measles, and 
other serious diseases. Instruction in these things is 
wholly practicable in all the schools, and is of the 
highest importance. 

7. Clothing. — The selection of suitable and durable 
clothing for the family is very essential in the practice 
of home economy. There is an infinite amount of 
waste occasioned by ignorance in regard to the value 
of the stuffs used in clothing. Often a garment is 
bought because it is cheap in price, when, perhaps, in 
the end, it is the most expensive. Children need 
clothing suited to the season, well-made, plain, and 
strong. Such clothing should not be of a character 
to stimulate their vanity. At the same time it can be 
attractive as well as serviceable. Then, too, children, 
boys as well as girls should be taught to take care of 
their clothing, to put it away in place and in order 
upon removing it and to keep it clean. Mending, 
darning, cleaning, and renovating should be taught 
to girls as soon as they are old enough. The training 



26o teaching: its aims and methods 

of German girls in this respect might well be adopted 
in the American home. It would add materially to 
the comfort and economy of living. 

8. The servant question, — No solution of the em- 
barrassing question of servants can be offered in the 
space here at command. How to secure servants, how 
to obtain efficient service from them, and how to keep 
them are problems that are harassing many a house- 
wife. It may be said, however, that most servants 
have respect for a mistress who quietly, yet firmly, 
assumes her place as the head of the internal affairs 
of the household, that is, provided she knows how to 
conduct these affairs. Kindly treatment of the servants 
of course is most essential. The work of the house- 
hold should be so systematized that it may be carried 
out without friction, each day having its specific tasks 
and its time for rest. These simple suggestions, if 
faithfully carried out, will do much to make the rela- 
tionship between mistress and maid happy and suc- 
cessful. Courses in household economy should not fail 
to include lessons in this important field. 

9. Care of children. — A great deal has been learned 
in recent years in regard to the care of children. We 
have seen that not long ago forty per cent of all the 
deaths in this country was of children under five 
years of age, and that this is reduced now to less than 
twenty per cent. Successful treatment of diphtheria, 
scarlet fever, measles and other children's diseases is 
largely the cause of this wonderful result. But the 
practice of hygienic measures, the careful study of 
foods, especially that of milk and its use, cleanliness, 
proper clothing, and the use of preventives in the 



TRAINING IN THE HOUSEHOLD ARTS 26 1 

treatment of the common diseases, are also of great 
importance. Is there any reason why many lessons 
upon these matters should not be taught in the schools? 
The school undertakes to prepare for life, — healthful, 
happy life. What instruction, then, more important 
than this can be given? 

Home economics thus should find a place in the cur- 
riculum of our schools. Girls should be offered an 
opportunity to learn the duties which will later confront 
many of them as wives and mothers, and which it is 
well that every woman should understand whether 
she is to become the head of a household or not. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE 

The Need for Instruction in Agriculture. — A larger 
number of people in this country gain their livelihood 
from some form of agriculture than from any other 
pursuit. And yet, until recently very little attention 
has been paid to the scientific study of this subject. 
The large increase in the population of the country, 
the exhaustion of the immense public domain, the 
competition of other countries in agricultural products, 
and the great increase in the cost of living have com- 
bined to compel us to consider how we may not only 
conserve our resources but also increase them. It is 
obvious that the most fertile and profitable field of 
investigation in the solution of the problem is the 
securing of larger returns per acre, in getting higher 
average crops. With the natural fertility of our soil and 
with our excellent climatic conditions, the returns from 
our farms per acre are ridiculously small as compared 
with the returns from the farms of other countries. 

The migration from the farm to the city has been 
so steady and persistent as to alarm public economists, 
and has led to a serious study of the problem of keep- 
ing the boy on the farm. Already there are signs of 
reaction and indications of a return to earlier con- 
ditions. Farm life is made more attractive, the returns 
are more profitable, and the tide seems to be turning 
in the right direction. Great universities and agri- 



INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE 263 

cultural schools are studying the art of scientific farm- 
ing, agricultural departments have been established 
by the national government and the state govern- 
ments, scientific lectures on farming are everywhere 
being given, a large amount of literature is being dis- 
tributed, and in many sections the subject is receiving 
attention in the common schools. At last the country 
is aroused as to the importance of the subject. 

However, the discussion which follows is particularly 
concerned with the children of the district school. 
There is no reason why the children of the farming 
districts, the boys and girls of the rural school, should 
not be interested in such questions as the nature of 
soils and the adaptation of crops to various soils, the 
selection and planting of seeds, the choice of fertilizers, 
the rotation of crops, the care of Hve stock, the testing 
of milk, and other matters connected with successful 
farming. The study of these problems is far more 
practical and interesting than that of many subjects 
now taught in these schools. These things, moreover, 
tend to popularize the farm and keep the young people 
at home. Increased transportation facilities are re- 
moving the isolation of rural Hfe and attracting city 
people to homes where the children can get near to 
mother earth, where they can have vegetable and 
flower gardens, and where they can be surrounded by 
natural, wholesome, healthful, and uplifting influences. 
Many rural schools have established school gardens, 
where some of the elemental features of scientific 
farming are illustrated, in which the children are 
shown how plants grow, and are taught to cultivate 
crops by actually doing the work themselves. 



264 teaching: its aims and methods 

Not only are the children interested and benefited, 
since the work is made to correlate with other school 
work, but parents also become enthusiastic and the 
result often is greatly improved methods of farming 
in the whole community. This is not mere theory, 
for such has been the result in many cases where it 
has been tried. Thus the school becomes a beneficent 
influence, not alone for the intellectual, moral, and 
social upbuilding of the pupils, but also for the ma- 
terial prosperity of the whole community. 

This work is entirely practicable, can be carried on 
at little expense, and will yield results far beyond the 
most sanguine expectations. It requires, however, a 
teacher of intelligence and enthusiasm. There are 
abundant recent publications treating of this subject 
to guide the teacher in this important and practical 
field of education. It is said that the weak link in 
our public school system is the rural school. Much 
that has been taught in the rural school has been copied 
from the town school curriculum and has been of little 
practical value to country children. The introduction 
of instruction in practical agriculture should aid in 
the solution of the problem of the rural school.^ 

^ It is impossible to present an outline of a course in agriculture in a 
book of this character. I therefore refer the reader to the following 
works: — 

Focht — "The American Rural School," Davenport — "Education for 
Efficiency," Burkett, Stevens and Hill — "Agriculture for Beginners," 
Hatch and Haselwood — "Elementary Agriculture," Nolan — "One Hun- 
dred Lessons in Agriculture," Bulletins from the United States Bureau of 
Education. Bulletin, 1913, No. 42, entitled "An Experimental Rural 
School at Winthrop College, Rock Hill, S. C." gives excellent suggestions 
as to what is possible in a country school. 



INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE 263 

The Home Project Plan of Massachusetts.^ — Massa- 
chusetts has recently adopted a plan of agricultural 
education that is meeting with great success. The 
plan is as follows: Any town or group of contiguous 
towns may establish an agricultural school and receive 
state support. It is provided that ''An agricultural 
school, day or evening, large or small, taught by 
one teacher or more, with or without school land and 
live stock, with training extended over two, three or 
four years, a school in general agriculture, or in 
such specialized productions as market gardening," 
may be established and one-half the expense be borne 
by the state, provided that the State Board of 
Education approves of its ''organization, control, 
location, equipment, courses of study, quahfications 
of teachers, methods of instruction, conditions of ad- 
mission and employment of pupils, and expenditure of 
money." 

It is provided that in high schools maintaining 
vocational agricultural departments, a specially quali- 
fied teacher shall be employed who must give his 
attention exclusively to agriculture, and must work 
through the summer months, taking his vacation in 
winter. It is his duty to supervise the work of the 
classes in agriculture "from seed time to the securing 
of the harvest." In high schools meeting the above 
conditions, the state pays two-thirds of the instructor's 
salary. 

** Part-time " Work. — In the effort to make the 
plan practical it is provided that the pupil shall divide 

^ See BuUetm, "The Massachusetts Home Project Plan of Vocational 
Agricultural Education." 



266 teaching: its aims and methods 

his time between the school and the field. In other 
words, ''Part-time work, as applied to agricultural 
education, means that the student must spend part of 
the time required for his education in productive farm 
work, preferably at home, and part of his time at 
school, the farm work and school study being closely 
correlated by the school at points selected from season 
to season or from year to year, and the highest possible 
educational value secured by competent supervision." 

In this course the following topics are all considered: 
the kinds of crops that can best be grown are speci- 
fied, the preparation of the ground for seed, the choice 
and preparation of seeds, soils, and fertilizers, the 
rotation of crops, watering and draining, the protec- 
tion of plants from their enemies, the storing, preserva- 
tion, and marketing of vegetables and other produce, 
the preparation of foods for the table and their nutri- 
tive value. 

In many parts of the country the offering of prizes 
for the best yield of corn, potatoes, or other crop, 
seems to stimulate actual endeavor on the part of 
children. The record of one boy for 191 2 is given as 
follows: "Vegetable garden, five-eighths of an acre, 
net profit, $44.35; credited self for labor, $12.00; 
boy's return, $56.35; the vegetable garden constituted 
a project which he carried on under school supervision. 
In addition, he set out and cultivated 1000 strawberry 
plants, raised one acre of corn and one-fourth acre of 
potatoes, plowed and planted one acre of millet and 
one-fourth acre of buckwheat, and cared for three 
cows, one horse and fifty hens." The boy's father 
was not able to work, so that he alone was responsible 



INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE 267 

for the work. With allowance made for his work and 
for the produce sold, the boy was entitled to a credit 
of $164.60, which, added to his ^'project" account of 
$56.35, made a total of $227.05 as the result of his 
season's work. This was certainly a very profitable 
summer's work for a schoolboy, and the presentation 
of a concrete example of this kind should have the 
effect of keeping ambitious boys on the farm. 

What Lessons can be Taught. — Professor Holden well 
says, "Real education is teaching the boy in the terms 
of his own life. You never really reach him until you 
do this. There is something in the home environment 
of every boy that holds the possibility of awakening 
his sleeping faculties to action — not only is there one 
thing generally, but many. And these things are 
almost invariably connected with practical work of 
some sort, usually with the activities of the life going 
on about him outside of the school. Boys and girls 
are interested in doing things, not in the abstract 
speculations with which the text-books are so largely 
filled." And he has proven this by the manner in 
which he interested his boys, and later their parents, 
in the selection of better seeds, thereby greatly 
increasing the yield of corn. He was successful also 
in interesting them in other ways connected directly 
with farm life. 

The design here is to indicate work that is quite 
within the scope of the rural school and concerning 
which the teacher can easily inform herself. More 
scientific and extended work will be possible in well- 
organized and well-supervised schools where agriculture 
is taught. Every rural school should have some in- 



268 teaching: its aims and methods 

struction in practical agriculture. This truth is so 
fundamental that it is strange that it has not long 
since been emphasized. Recent discussions of efficiency 
in the schools have brought this question among others 
to the attention of schoolmen and school authorities. 
Lessons of this character are quite practicable and they 
should make farm life attractive and enable the farm 
to produce more adequate harvests. The average crop 
of wheat in Denmark is 38 bushels to the acre; in 
Holland, 34; in England, 32; in Germany, 40; and 
in Minnesota, 13.^ 

1. Seeds. — Ignorance as to the character of seeds 
and indifference as to the selection of them often result 
in a poor harvest. It is important therefore that 
instruction concerning seeds be given. Early in the 
season, in March or earlier, seeds of the most common 
crops such as corn, wheat, beans, and cotton, should 
be soaked in water and then placed in soil and properly 
watered to determine if they will germinate. A 
shorter process consists in carefully dissecting the kernel 
with a sharp knife after soaking it in water. This will 
be found a most profitable undertaking, very simple 
and easily carried out, and of great interest to the chil- 
dren. The attention of farmers should be called to 
the selection of the most promising seed at the time 
of harvest and to the preservation of it for the next 
planting. 

2. Soils. — It is hardly to be expected that the 
rural school will be able to make a scientific study of 

^ A very practical book on this subject suitable for the rural teacher 
is Nolan's "One Hurxdred Lessons in Agriculture," published by Row, 
Peterson & Co., Chicago. 



INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE 269 

soils. Yet it can teach the difference between sandy, 
clay, and humus loam and the necessity of moisture 
and air in good soil. Nolan suggests the following 
experiment, which will determine the water-holding 
capacity of soils. ^'Fill three small earthen flower-pots 
with finely pulverized soils, one with clay, one with 
sand, and one with humus loam. Weigh these, and if 
possible make them weigh the same. Then slowly 
pour water into each pot until the soils are saturated 
and the water begins to run out from the hole at 
the bottom of the pot. Weigh the pots of wet soil 
and determine which is holding the most water; which 
soil took in the water most rapidly; which most 
slowly; which of the soils could absorb the heaviest 
shower; which soil continues to drip longest; which 
drains most readily." 

Soils from different fields can be brought in, and by 
this simple experiment their power to absorb and 
retain moisture, and therefore their ability to stand 
a drought, can be determined. By this means the 
farmer can determine the kind of crops to plant in 
each particular soil without experimenting with a 
crop in which a whole year's harvest may be lost. 

3. Fertilizers. — The elements of plant growth are 
found in the soil. Nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, 
and calcium are often found in insufficient quantities, 
and these must be supplied by the right kind of fer- 
tilizers. Farmers often go to the expense of purchasing 
fertilizers with no knowledge as to their suitability 
to the soil and to the crop planted and therefore they 
fail to get results. It would be far better for them to 
meet the expense of an analysis of the soil by an expert 



270 teaching: its aims and methods 

in order to determine just which fertilizer is needed. 
While it is not expected that the rural school teacher 
shall be able to perform such work, she can at least 
direct attention to it. 

4. Rotation of crops. — The farmers of Europe for 
centuries have been taking crops from the same soil, 
which, instead of becoming exhausted, has actually 
grown more fertile. We have seen that they reap 
three and four times the harvest per acre that we do, 
and while superior methods of cultivation and cli- 
matic conditions are doubtless important factors in 
securing these results, there is no doubt that the chief 
reason is found in the systematic rotation of crops. 
While their lands have been tilled for a thousand 
years and have grown richer, ours are often sadly 
depleted after scarcely a hundred years of tillage. 

The European farmers follow a scientific plan of 
rotation, — wheat, potatoes, beets, clover, rye, millet, 
etc., succeed and alternate one another. Besides this 
the fertilizers are carefully selected so as not only to 
meet the wants of each particular crop, but also to 
preserve the soil for the future. There is no such thing 
as ''skinning the land" to get the most out of it, re- 
gardless of future crops. We have suggestive illustra- 
tions of the folly of our system of farming in the 
depleted tobacco and cotton lands of the South, and 
the wheat lands of the West. Planters continued the 
same crop year after year, taking from the soil and 
giving nothing back to it, until the land had nothing 
more to give. I saw a gentleman gathering seeds 
from a tulip tree a few days ago, and when I asked 
him what he was going to do with them, he replied, 



INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE 271 

^'I am going to plant them in the woods. We are 
constantly taking things from our forests and giving 
nothing back to them. I take bushels of seeds with 
me every time I go to Europe and plant them in the 
forests over there. I also bring large quantities of 
seeds home with me for the same purpose." 

Change of crop draws new elements from the earth 
and the sky, rests the soil, and restores and rein- 
vigorates it. Variety of crop does not stake all on a 
single venture, the failure of which may mean ruin. 
Thus some fields may be devoted to wheat, others to 
corn or to potatoes, or beets, or flax, and if one of these 
fails, the others may produce a harvest. 

5. Insects. — It is claimed that insects every year 
destroy crops in this country to the value of several 
hundred milUon dollars. As I write, the army- worm and 
the grasshoppers are devastating many sections of the 
country, and the agricultural departments of a number 
of states are hurrying hundreds of men to the afflicted 
sections with the means of destroying these^enemies of 
the farmer. This is one of the most hopeful signs of 
progress of recent times. 

Some years ago, while visiting my native place in 
New York State, I came over the brow of a mountain, 
and in looking down into the distant valley I saw a 
single tree at the edge of a beautiful maple grove 
that showed signs of caterpillars. When I called the 
attention of my companion to this, he replied indiffer- 
ently, ''Yes, that is the work of caterpillars, but I 
don't think it will amount to anything." A year 
later I made that same trip and every maple tree in 
that vicinity was as destitute of leaves as in mid- 



272 TEACHING: ITS AIMS AND METHODS 

winter. The cocoons of the worms were found upon 
every tree and shrub, and even the clapboards of the 
farmhouses and barns were covered with them. A 
third year the pest came in reinforced numbers and the 
trees, having lost their vitality from the repeated de- 
struction of their leaves, were dying. Today many 
of the beautiful maple forests of that section have been 
wiped out. If this pest had been resisted with vigor- 
ous treatment, such as is being employed at present 
against the army-worm and the grasshopper, thousands 
of trees might have been saved and great loss averted. 
The Germans have long since learned how to care for 
their forests and we would do well to follow their 
example. 

A decade ago the San Jose scale attacked and de- 
stroyed all the peach trees of New Jersey and Dela- 
ware. A spraying mixture was found that conquered 
this enemy, trees have been replanted, and the growers 
are again reaping an abundant harvest. 

A knowledge of the habits of insects and of the 
means of destroying them is of utmost importance to 
the farmer. Some insects that attack the leaves of 
plants can be destroyed by spraying the leaves with 
a poisonous substance like lead arsenate. Nolan 
suggests a mixture of lime-sulphur and lead arsenate. 
The former '^ checks the spread of diseases such as 
apple scab, * frog-eye,' fungus, brown rats, etc., and 
the lead arsenate kills the 'apple worm,' the leaf-eating 
caterpillars, and other chewing insects." 

There are also insects that suck the sap from the 
tree or plant, such as dififerent kinds of scales. These 
are destroyed by spraying with lime-sulphur or a mix- 



INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE 273 

ture of kerosene and soapsuds. The lime-sulphur can 
be purchased or made. Nolan's recipe is as follows: 
''Lime, 8 pounds; sulphur, i6 pounds; water, lo 
gallons. Boil together for about forty minutes; then 
dilute one gallon of the mixture with ten of water." 

Eternal vigilance as well as intelligence on the part 
of the farmer in the spring of the year is necessary, or 
insects will destroy his plants, make his fruit wormy, 
and rob him of the results of his labor. Elemental 
lessons concerning these matters can be taught in the 
rural school, and nothing the children can learn will 
be more practical, more useful, and more interesting 
both to them and to their parents. 

6. The dairy. — The products of the dairy have a 
great deal to do with the comfort and the sustenance 
of the human family. Moreover, milKons of people 
gain their livelihood in connection with some form of 
dairying. We already understand that cleanliness is 
the most important factor in dairying, and that milk is 
one of the articles of food most difficult to keep clean. 
And yet it is surprising how much ignorance and care- 
lessness still exist in connection with this product. 

Then, too, the importance of testing milk to deter- 
mine the amount of butter fat it contains should be 
emphasized. By this means it can be definitely de- 
termined which cows are most valuable and most 
profitable. The testing of milk is a very simple pro- 
cess which can easily be taught in the rural school, 
where it would be sure to arouse interest and be of 
practical good. The underlying thought in this whole 
discussion is how to help the rural school and the 
patrons whose children attend it. 



274 teaching: its aims and methods 

7. Farm accounts. — Many farmers drift along from 
year to year without keeping any account of their 
various enterprises, and therefore without knowing 
exactly which ones are yielding a profit and which 
are carried on at a loss. By a very simple system of 
bookkeeping most valuable hints can be gained for 
future guidance. It would certainly be suggestive if 
a farmer were to compare the cost of the seed, the 
fertilizer, and the labor necessary to raise a crop and 
the expense of harvesting and marketing it, with the 
actual return, and thus determine the exact amount 
of profit. The same account might be kept with the 
dairy, and indeed with each cow in the dairy, with the 
hens, the hogs, the sheep, and the vegetable garden. 
Lessons would be learned that would be excellent guides 
for future activities. Comparisons with former years 
would not only be interesting but profitable. Ex- 
cellent suggestions as to the manner of keeping farm 
accounts are given by Nolan. The system employed 
is not vital. The point is that some record of the 
various farm enterprises should be kept, and instruc- 
tion in simple bookkeeping for this purpose should 
be a part of the duty of every rural schoolteacher. 
It will be a help to the future farmers and farmers' 
wives, if not an immediate aid to present farmers. 

8. The school garden. — Many schools have secured 
a tract of land in the neighborhood of the building, 
and on this the pupils are set to work, and the lessons 
practically demonstrated. One of the difficulties con- 
nected with the successful maintenance of the school 
garden is that the school is closed from June until 
September, and thus over two months are left when the 



INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE 275 

teacher is away and there is no one to do the work. 
In many parts of the country this is the period when 
most care is needed in cultivating and harvesting the 
crops and in fighting insects. Many things, however, 
can be done in the time at command in showing the 
children how the soil is prepared, the seed selected and 
planted, and the cultivation carried on. They can 
be instructed in the thinning and pruning as well as 
in the harvesting and marketing. In agricultural 
schools, which continue in session through the summer, 
and where the plan of part time for study and part time 
for outdoor work is practiced, the above handicap 
disappears. Much is being done, however, in many 
common schools, and much more can be done with the 
school garden idea, an activity in which children are 
easily interested. 

9. Additional topics. — There are many other topics 
that the rural teacher will be able to take up, for 
example, fruit-growing, gardening, the care of animals 
and poultry, etc., depending upon the interests of each 
locality. If she lacks knowledge of these subjects, there 
is an abundance of books, pamphlets, and other avail- 
able agricultural literature, from which the necessary 
information can be obtained. 

As our population increases and our public domain 
diminishes, the cost of living will inevitably be higher 
unless the soil is made to yield a higher average of 
crops. It therefore behooves us by intelligent and 
scientific farming to increase the productiveness of 
our cultivated land at least as fast as our population 
increases. The difference between a crop of 13 bushels 
to the acre in one of our best wheat-growing states, 



276 teaching: its aims and methods 

and 38 bushels to the acre in Denmark certainly 
leaves a wide margin of possibilities. And there is 
no reason why that difference cannot be largely can- 
celed. What greater contribution to the public wel- 
fare can the school offer than to aid in this work? 

Hon. P. P. Claxton, United States Commissioner of 
Education, predicts that every rural school will some 
day have attached to it a farm of twenty or thirty 
acres provided with a house for the teacher and his 
family. He says, ''This farm, if properly operated by 
the teacher, will be a kind of model farm, and a center 
of the agricultural and social life of the district." 
While this vision undoubtedly looks into the distant 
future, it suggests a condition of things that would 
make rural life attractive, popularize farming, bring 
better returns for the investment, and increase the 
crops commensurate with the growth of population. 



CHAPTER XIX 

EFFICIENCY IN EDUCATION 

Criticism of the School. — A great deal has been said 
in recent times about efficiency in the various activities 
of life, — in manufacturing and commerce, in public life, 
in war, in household relationships, and in every other 
field of human enterprise. No wonder that the school, 
which has the duty of preparing boys and girls for 
all these activities, should be called upon to focus 
its attention upon the question of its own efficiency. 

I have already shown (Chap. IV) that great ad- 
vance in education has been made, that criticism of 
our schools is by no means recent, and that just and 
constructive criticism is always welcomed by teachers 
to whom the defects of the schools are best known. 

Criticism of the schools is by no means a new thing. 
Let me quote from a report of the board of education 
of Cambridge, Mass., schools: — 

"A few of the schools excel in reading, while most 
of them, both in reading and spelling, are lamentably 
deficient. There is an unaccountable reluctance on 
the part both of teachers and scholars to use the 
spelling book, a book which, in the days of their 
fathers, was ever acknowledged Hhe only sure guide 
to the EngHsh tongue.' For this reason, or some other, 
we have but very few, if any, good spellers. The 
committee are unanimously of the opinion that the 



278 teaching: its aims and methods 

attainments in this branch are altogether inferior to 
what was witnessed in our schools twenty or thirty 
years ago, in the days of 'spelling matches/ and 
^choosing sides,' and 'taking places,' when spelling 
was generally the most spirited and interesting exercise 
in school. It is sincerely hoped that, hereafter, much 
more attention will be paid in our schools to spelling." 

Commissioner Kendall says: ''This has a strangely 
famihar sound, but it was not written this year nor 
last year nor ten years ago but more than sixty years 
ago, in 1843." 

Still, the cry from the press, the business men, and 
many parents continues to be, "The schools are 
teaching too many fads; get back to the 'Three R's' 
of the good old times." Now, no teacher will deny 
that the school that neglects to teach the children 
to read, spell, write, and cipher is failing in its duty. 
These things come first in educational development; 
they are fundamental, and weakness in them is mxost 
easily detected. A misspelled word, an incorrect 
pronunciation, a faulty use of language, stumbling in 
reading aloud, poor penmanship, are apparent to the 
most uncritical. Weakness in these things is easily 
discovered, and is generally accepted as an evidence of 
ignorance. Hence they must receive constant atten- 
tion in the school, must be eternally drilled upon 
until the pupils have thoroughly mastered them. 
The public have a right to expect this and the school 
must meet this expectation. I assert that the children 
of our schools read better, spell better, write better, 
and cipher better than did the children of a generation 
ago. But they do not read, spell, write, nor cipher as 



EFFICIENCY IN EDUCATION 279 

well as they should. These formal studies are the 
'Hools" of education, without which educational prog- 
ress is impossible. Therefore the importance of them 
should be em.phasized with all possible force. 

But there is another side to this matter of criticism 
that in all fairness should be considered. While the 
old-time school had only a few subjects to teach, it 
must not be forgotten that many new duties have been 
thrust upon the m^odern school. In former times most 
people Hved on farms or in small villages and there 
were plenty of duties, ''chores," for both boys and girls 
to perform. No boy in those times ever needed to 
ask the question which now so often pesters parents, 
''Father, what shall I do?" There was always plenty 
to do and children were early taught to be helpful. 
Most valuable lessons were thus learned. I doubt 
if any man or woman who was brought up under those 
conditions ever regrets having had such experiences. 
Manual training thus took care of itself. It has been 
estimated that a boy brought up on a farm had to 
know something of more than seventy different 
trades or occupations. Thus hand as well as head was 
employed in the development of the country child. 

How things have changed in recent years ! The cities 
are rapidly increasing, while the country is decreasing 
in population. Even in the country and on the farm^ 
modes of living have greatly changed, owing to changes 
in the methods of farming, to the utilization of ma- 
chinery in the place of hand labor, to improved facili- 
ties of transportation. For similar reasons great 
changes have taken place in the mechanical trades 
and in business enterprises. The blacksmith buys 



28o teaching: its aims and methods 

much of the material he needs already prepared by 
machinery in the factory. He merely has to fit and 
shape it for its particular use. Formerly he was 
obliged to forge the horseshoe or wagon-clip out of 
a bar of iron, and very likely he even had to make his 
own tools. The same was true of the carpenter, the 
cabinet-maker, the cooper, the wagon-maker, and the 
plumber. It required seven years of apprenticeship 
to learn a trade; now three years is ample time. 

In the household fully as great changes have been 
made through the introduction of vacuum cleaners, 
gas and electrical heating, and other labor-saving ap- 
pliances. Besides, as I have shown elsewhere, much 
work formerly performed in the home is no longer 
done there. Equal changes have been made in busi- 
ness practices. It is thus seen that the use of the 
manual arts in the home has greatly diminished, and 
the school is called upon to furnish a training that 
formerly, from the nature of things, took care of itself. 
This must not be forgotten in making comparisons 
between the old-time and the present schools. 

The More Important Duty of the School. — While the 
''Three R's" are the first essential, they are by no 
means the most important. One must have tools 
before one can build a house, but the house is of far 
more account than the tools. To pronounce correctly 
and with proper inflection, and be able to read aloud 
in a way to please listeners, is an excellent accomplish- 
ment; but to get the content of what you read is of 
far more importance; for one reads the paper, the 
magazine, the book, for the sake of the thought, the 
content, a hundred times as often as one reads aloud 



EFFICIENCY IN EDUCATION 28 1 

for the edification of others. Reading for informa- 
tion is a principal source of knowledge. Therefore the 
main purpose of learning to read is to enable us to get 
the thoughts of others, to find out what the world 
has done and is doing. And yet, I repeat, we must 
not neglect to teach children to read aloud correctly 
and intelligibly. 

To write a beautiful hand is an accomplishment. 
But to have thoughts to express and to be able to 
express them accurately is writing in the larger sense, 
which is of greater importance than good penmanship. 
But we must not fail to teach the pupils to write 
legibly and with facility. Rapidity and accuracy in 
adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing, and in 
other manipulations in arithmetic is essential; but 
to be able to apply these things in practical hfe is 
after all the purpose of studying this subject. I 
have endeavored to show in foregoing chapters on these 
subjects how these applications are to be made. The 
point here is that even with the common subjects of 
the school course the content side is of far more im- 
portance than the form side. Nor are these larger de- 
mands thus outlined by any means the only demands 
made. The world has made mighty progress during 
the last half century. New discoveries and inventions 
have been made; new conditions have arisen which 
have brought to the front many new problems in hu- 
man life. The school, which prepares men for life, 
must meet these problems. While, a generation ago, 
a knowledge of the common branches sufficed for that 
time, it would not suffice now. A knowledge of geog- 
.raphy, of the various branches of science, of history. 



282 teaching: its aims and methods 

of literature, and of art is not only necessary for an 
intelligent comprehension of life and a preparation 
for usefulness and enjoyment such as the age offers, but 
it is absolutely essential to the equipment for ordinary 
business life. How often one hears some such expres- 
sion as this from an elderly business man: ^'Business 
methods have changed. It is not so easy to succeed 
in business as it once was. Competition is so sharp 
that a man must be alert, active, and up to the times, 
or he will surely fail." I have already shown how the 
school has been compelled to introduce the manual 
arts. More and more, parents are thrusting the whole 
duty of education upon the school. Intellectual train- 
ing has long been considered the special function of 
the school. Now it must assume also the physical 
and the moral training of the youth, and there is a 
strong tendency to introduce religious training into 
the public school, a duty that old-time parents, who 
regarded children as the gift of God, gladly assumed 
as a sacred duty. The home is the peculiar institution 
that should undertake this latter duty, and neither 
Sunday school nor day school can excuse parents 
from that duty. Unfortunately, the home is so sadly 
neglecting this work that the school must undertake 
it or it will never be done. 

How the School Meets the New Demands. — When 
criticism of the schools is offered, the greatly in- 
creased demands and unusual conditions of the present 
day should not be forgotten. This is written not by 
way of apology, but as an explanation; for educators, 
better than anyone else, understand the defects of 
American education, as we have seen. The schools 



EFFICIENCY IN EDUCATION 283 

are earnestly seeking to meet new conditions and thus 
keep in touch with the progress of modern times. 

Let us consider the means that have been intro- 
duced to meet these new demands. 

1 . Prevocational schools. — Of course all education 
which precedes that which prepares for some specific 
occupation is prevocational. In a more limited sense 
manual training and domestic science are spoken of 
as the prevocational subjects. They are usually intro- 
duced into the late grammar grades. It is the kind 
of work that every child should have, regardless of 
what his future career may be. As already shown, 
they are purely educational. For further considera- 
tion of these subjects, reference is made to the chapters 
on Manual Training and Household Arts. In Chapter 
IV, I have attempted to show what the child should 
know. This knowledge surely is prevocational. 

2 . The suppkfnentary or continuation schools. — We 
have not yet developed this work by any means so 
far as the Germans have. Their continuation schools 
are a distinct part of their school system, offering 
opportunity for children to supplement their common 
school training by thorough and varied courses, differ- 
ing according to the needs of a community and its 
ability to supply those needs. In many cities it is 
possible for a boy to prepare himself in these schools, 
without interference with his daily occupation, for 
almost any trade or calling. 

A beginning in this direction has been made in this 
country in vacation schools, night schools, art schools, 
and industrial or vocational schools. Many of the 
night schools lay emphasis upon instruction needed 



284 teaching: its aims and methods 

by foreign-born children and by others employed during 
the day. Reading, writing, arithmetic, and other com- 
mon branches are taught. Few night schools are able 
to offer work intended to fit for a specific vocation. 
In some of the art schools mechanical drawing, ele- 
mentary chemistry, applied physics, and other matters 
connected with the industries of a locaUty are taught. 
Vacation schools usually offer work designed to bring 
pupils who have fallen behind in their work of the 
year up to grade. In some cases opportunity is offered 
to ambitious students who desire to shorten their 
course. In higher institutions, vacation schools or 
summer schools are conducted, in which courses are 
offered that lead to a degree or a certificate of ad- 
vancement. Many cities are maintaining industrial 
schools in which printing, mechanical drawing, elec- 
trical work, machine-shop work, carpentry, and cabinet- 
making are taught. In some instances these lead 
directly to a trade, but the work has hardly been car- 
ried far enough to have a decided influence in pre- 
paring the American youth to gain a livelihood. The 
cost of equipment and the Hmited facilities offered, 
together with the lack of interest on the part of chil- 
dren and parents, will account for the comparatively 
few who take this work. 

3. Vocational schools. — The laws of New Jersey 
define vocational education to be, "Any form of edu- 
cation, whether given in a school or elsewhere, the 
purpose of which is to fit the individual to pursue 
efficiently a recognized profitable employment." The 
schools just described miay partake somewhat of this 
character. Vocational schools proper are intended 



EFFICIENCY IN EDUCATION 285 

for youths fourteen or more years of age who are 
unable to continue in the regularly provided schools, 
as in the high schools. Wisconsin, since 191 1, has 
taken advanced ground upon the subject of vocational 
education. It requires the pupil to attend school 
not less than five hours a week during the day time and 
em.ployers are required to pay the child's wages for 
the time spent in school. Two hours of this time 
must be devoted to English, citizenship, business 
practice, physiology, hygiene, and the use of safety 
devices. The remaining time is devoted to such 
other branches as may be approved by the state board 
of industrial education. These schools are established 
by the direct vote of any school district. There is a 
special board of local control consisting of the local 
superintendent, two employers of labor, and two 
skilled employees. In country districts the local 
board consists of the county superintendent, ex officio, 
and six members elected by popular vote. Wisconsin 
follows the experience of German com.munities in plac- 
ing vocational schools under a separate board with 
some members specially acquainted with vocational 
enterprises. 

Illinois has under consideration the adoption of a 
similar system. The following are some of the features 
of the law proposed in this state: ''i. Vocational con- 
tinuation day schools are for the youth of both sexes 
between the ages of fourteen and eighteen years who 
are employed, or are not pupils in other schools. At 
these vocational schools such instruction shall be given 
as will render more efficient the practical work of the 
factory, the shop, the store, the office, the garden, or 



286 teaching: its aims and methods 

the home." 2. Vocational evening schools for pupils 
over eighteen years of age for the same purpose as 
above shall be established. 3. Vocational continuation 
schools are to be opened for servants, apprentices, and 
clerks. Other forms of vocational schools are provided 
which may be established as any community may 
determine. 

The success of vocational education in Wisconsin, 
where about 30,000 students are pursuing these courses, 
has attracted the attention of other states, and it would 
seem that the movement is destined to grow. Prob- 
ably no city in the world has so effective a plan of 
vocational education as Munich, under the remark- 
able leadership of Dr. Kerschensteiner. 

4. The six-and-six plan. — Many communities are 
changing from the traditional plan of the eight years' 
elementary and the four years' high school course to 
the six-and-six plan; that is, a six years' elementary 
course and a six years' high school course, the seventh 
and eighth grades of the lower school being attached 
to the high school. The following are the advantages 
of the six-and-six plan: i. The normal child should 
complete the elementary studies at the end of the 
sixth grade. 2. Much in the seventh and eighth 
grades is spun out and unnecessarily repeated. 3. Sub- 
jects in these grades can be better given in the high 
school with its different methods and more sympa- 
thetic atmosphere. 4. The change of school at the 
beginning of the adolescent period is more natural than 
at fourteen or fifteen years of age, the time when most 
children now enter the high school. 5. Having thus 
been started in high school work, the child is less 



EFFICIENCY IN EDUCATION 287 

likely to leave school than he is now. Experience has 
verified this wherever the six-and-six plan has been 
tried. 6. There could be a better adjustment of studies. 
Foreign languages, for example, could be begun earHer, 
while the memory is more accurate and retentive. 7. 
Subjects requiring several years of study could be carried 
on, if not by the same teacher, at least under the same 
administration. 8. The discipline of the school could 
be better adjusted to the pupils, they being given more 
initiative and responsibility than is possible in the ele- 
mentary school. 9. The six high school years may be 
divided into a junior and a senior course, each of three 
years. This w^ould make possible the estabhshment of 
a variety of junior schools, such as, industrial, com- 
mercial, agricultural, scientific, or classical, suitable to 
the needs and ability of any community. These could 
lead to and articulate with the senior high school for 
such students as are able to continue in school. 

Such an arrangement would provide vocational train- 
ing for the children of a city, inasmuch as they would 
be allowed to choose the school that offered the kind 
of work they desire to pursue. It is believed that such 
a scheme w^ould materially aid in solving the prob- 
lem of preparing children for greater efficiency. The 
larger number of children retained in school obtain a 
better preparation for whatever vocation they may 
enter upon after leaving the junior school, v/hile those 
who desire to go on with their education can do so in 
the senior high school, which also prepares them for 
still higher courses of study. 

5. Part-time schools. — In some communities the 
school 'and the industrial and business enterprises 



288 teaching: its aims and methods 

have arranged a cooperative plan whereby school and 
shop or other outside work alternate. Cincinnati 
has developed such a plan in connection with the uni- 
versity courses, and a number of other cities are making 
attempts to adapt the scheme to their local needs. A 
notable instance is found in the plan worked out in 
York, Pa. As this plan seems to be working very 
successfully and as it excellently illustrates the idea 
of part-time schools, a description of it will serve our 
purpose in presenting this subject. It is as follows: 
During the first high school year no attempt at alter- 
nation is made. But the boys are given a general 
knowledge of the different trades, sent to the shops 
to watch the work, required to write themes, and are 
otherwise engaged for the purpose of discovering the 
trade they would like to learn and for which they are 
best fitted. The whole year is spent in school. When 
vacation comes, the boys are put into shops to begin 
the trade they have selected, arrangements having 
previously been made with the employers. From the 
beginning of the second year and till the end of the 
high school course the boys alternate school and shop 
work, the change being made each week. If at any 
time a boy is found to have made a mistake in the 
choice of a trade, he is allowed to take up another one. 
Each boy is required to make a written report of 
his week^s work upon returning to school. These re- 
ports are examined by the industrial director of the 
school in order to note whether proper progress has 
been made and to discover when he has so far mas- 
tered his tasks as to be able to enter a new field. 
The director also visits the shops where the boys are 



EFFICIENCY IN EDUCATION 289 

employed from time to time, so as to supervise their 
work and also to prevent employers from exploiting 
the work by keeping a boy on a job that he has 
already mastered. The school insists that the boy is 
there to learn, and so soon as he has learned a par- 
ticular phase of a trade, he must be moved on to a 
new phase. It will appear at once that the employer 
must be in complete sympathy with the movement 
and not expect the learner to work for profit. While 
the employer necessarily must be at some inconvenience 
and possible loss in thus participating in the scheme, 
the far-sighted manufacturers of York have found that 
it is a good investment rather than a philanthropy, 
for the superior training afforded furnishes them later 
with better mechanics and more skilled workmen. 
The difficulty in most communities is to bring managers 
of concerns to an appreciation of this fact. Coopera- 
tion of the kind so well established in York is therefore 
hard to secure. 

Work in the shop is also made to correlate with the 
school work. The reports alluded to are turned over 
to the teachers of English for grammar, letter-writing, 
and general composition. Composition has a very 
different meaning to a boy when he writes about some- 
thing in which he is interested, than when he must 
write upon an abstract theme. It appeals to him as 
something vitally connected with his success in life 
and he will naturally do his best. Arithmetic, draw- 
ing, physics, geography, and other subjects are easily 
correlated with the work of shop and school. Literary 
and practical work go forward hand in hand, and a 
knowledge of the one deepens the boy's respect for 



290 teaching: its aims and methods 

the other. Books treating on the occupations are put 
into the pupils' hands and they thus gain a wide 
historical and scientific knowledge of their chosen life- 
work. 

During the four years' high school course a boy 
obtains about two and one-half years' credit as an 
apprentice, as all his vacations are spent in the shops. 
He is paid somewhat more than the ordinary appren- 
tice, and the employers justify this on the ground of his 
superior intelligence and schooling. Upon completing the 
course, the boy is given a diploma signed by represen- 
tatives of the two institutions that have taken part in his 
education, the school and the manufactory, for the one 
has been educating him as truly as the other. After 
graduation he readily finds employment as a mechanic, 
and after a brief trial he is admitted to full journeyman 
privileges and emoluments. 

It may be mentioned that the Hterary work of the 
high school course does not suffer materially by this 
plan. Indeed, in many cases, it seems not to have 
suffered at all, as is shown by the manner in which 
graduates from these courses sustain themselves in 
colleges and in other higher institutions. The explana- 
tion is found in the deeper interest awakened, in the 
ambitions inspired, and in the mutual reactions caused 
by employment of both intellectual and motor activi- 
ties. 

The principal difficulty in carrying out the part-time 
school, as already pointed out, is found in the un- 
wiUingness of employers unselfishly to cooperate. 
Without this cooperation success cannot be attained. 
With it the solution of many puzzling educational prob- 



EFFICIENCY IN EDUCATION 29 1 

lems, such as the preparation of better trained artisans, 
more regular and longer continued attendance at school, 
a deeper interest in school work, and a higher respect 
for manual activities, would seem to be at hand. A 
great deal remains to be done, but a beginning has 
been made that should materially aid in preparing our 
children for better citizenship and greater efficiency in 
obtaining a livelihood. Thus the school is not only a 
preparation for life, but the school actually becomes 
life. 



CHAPTER XX 

MORAL INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOL 

Importance of Instruction in Morals. — Never before 
in the history of education has it been so clearly rec- 
ognized that education must have an ethical basis. 
The educated thief is a far greater menace to society 
than the ignorant one, for he will not only be more 
skilful in planning and executing his crime, but also 
be more shrewd in escaping punishment. The Ilerbar- 
tian school of pedagogy lays particular emphasis upon 
the moral side of education, defining education as the 
development of all the powers of man to the end that 
good character may be formed. The general policy 
in American schools is to make moral training indirect 
and incidental rather than to give it a formal place 
in the curriculum or to take note of it in the schedule 
of daily work. There is a growing feeling among 
educators, however, that the school is losing in power 
by such negative practice. This feeUng is substan- 
tiated by the too evident disrespect for law, and by 
the alarming fact that the increase in youthful crimi- 
nals is greater than the increase in population, and that 
our institutions for juvenile delinquents are over- 
crowded. 

The presence of these conditions has led many think- 
ers to feel that the indirect moral influence of the 



MORAL INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOL 293 

school, exerted through the wholesome environment, 
the high ethical standards, and the earnest work of 
teachers of pure lives and holy example, however ex- 
cellent it may be, is not sufhcient to meet the emer- 
gency. There is an earnest and imperative call for 
something else, and the answer to this call is the 
greatest problem now confronting American education. 

France aboHshed religious instruction from her 
public schools in 1886. The increase in juvenile crime 
was at once so marked as to cause general alarm. 
It was evident that the diminishing of the restraints 
of religion consequent upon its withdrawal from the 
schools was having an immediate effect upon the moral 
standards of the children. Consequently the govern- 
ment, while it could not restore religious instruction, 
introduced moral instruction as a definite requirement 
of the school curriculum. It was not many years be- 
fore there was noted a marked change for the better 
in the moral attitude of the people, showing that 
definite and systematic moral teaching in the school 
has a beneficial effect. 

Religion and Morals. — There is a close connection 
between religion and morals. Indeed, systems of 
morals are founded upon systems of religion. The 
moral ideals of China find their basis in the teach- 
ings of Confucius, which have recently been reaffirmed 
as the state reUgion. The morals of the Moham- 
medans find their basis in the teachings of the Koran. 
The Veda likewise furnishes the moral as well as the 
rehgious code of the Hindus. So, too, the teachings 
of the Bible are for the Christian the foundation of 
moral ideals. 



294 teaching: its aims and methods 

Failure to distinguish between religion and morals 
is common, many holding that they are identical. 
Religion teaches the relation of man to God; morals 
teach the relation of man to his fellowman. The 
Ten Commandments furnish the basis of obligations, 
religious and moral, the first four teaching the duty 
of man to God and the last six the duty of man to 
other men. The fourth also, ''Remember the Sabbath 
day to keep it holy," surely has a bearing upon man's 
duty to his fellowmen, especially that of the employer 
to the employee, as well as possessing a spiritual 
significance. Observance of the Sabbath is not simply 
a recognition of God's command. True, it awakens 
and stimulates a reverence for sacred things, but it 
also has a decided moral influence, in that it turns 
one away from the harassing care and heavy burdens 
of everyday life, and furnishes an opportunity for rest 
and recreation, for upbuilding of body, mind, and 
soul, and for the recuperating of spent forces. It is 
well established that from a business standpoint it 
pays to set apart one day in seven for rest. And so 
the Ten Commandments are the basis of moral law, 
and if these are not sufficient, Jesus added another in 
the words, *'A new commandment I give unto you, 
That ye love one another; as I have loved you, that 
ye also love one another." This, in the deepest sense, 
is religious, and it was intended to bind the disciples 
together for the propagation of His doctrine and the 
spread of His Gospel. But it surely furnishes the 
very best suggestion for the conduct of men for all 
time, without reference to rehgious creed. The moral- 
ist who rejects the spiritual message of Jesus certainly 



MORAL INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOL 295 

cannot escape His teaching in the words of the Golden 
Rule, ''Do unto others as ye would that they should 
do unto you," for that is the corner-stone of the moral 
creed. Therefore, we must turn to the Bible and to the 
teachings of religion for the basis of moral instruction. 

Sister Helen Angela gives four fundamentals of 
character as follows: ''Religion first, the stone of the 
corner which many builders have rejected; a will, 
active and strong as well as good; self-control to hold 
the emotions in check; and the habit of right action." 
She also adds, "There is no common mold in which 
to form character. Each child must be permitted 
to keep his own. God must have intended it so. 
No one thinks of converting buttercups into daisies 
or roses into liHes; we should miss the buttercups 
and roses wofully. It is not right for anyone in au- 
thority to project her pet ideal of character on her 
subjects; if she does she is making something arti- 
ficial, straining God's ideal for each individual." 

Means of Moral Instruction. — It should be the aim of 
principal and teachers to make the life of the school, in 
every activity and relation, count for moral education. 
In working toward this aim the following means may 
be suggested: 

I . The character of the teacher. — Appropriate means 
should be employed to develop and form the moral 
character of the pupils. There is the indirect, daily, 
quiet, ever effective influence of the life of the teacher, 
which, as countless men and women can testify, has 
formed the ideals of pupils, inspired their ambitions, 
purified their motives, and shaped their lives. Many 
a man who is serving his fellowmen in noble and self- 



296 TEACHING: ITS AIMS AND METHODS 

sacrificing devotion, who is noted for his integrity and 
beloved for his altruism, owes to some humble school- 
teacher the inspiration of the life he leads. This is one 
of the teacher's greatest rewards, and because of the 
opportunity which the calling affords, teaching becomes 
to any man or woman who seeks to be a blessing to 
mankind the noblest of all professions. It calls for 
the same spirit that the Master inculcated when He 
said, ''Inasmuch as ye have done it unto one of the 
least of these my brethren ye have done it unto Me." 
The personal example and the life of the teacher is the 
greatest indirect influence in molding the moral life of 
the youth of any land. It is a supreme satisfaction 
that the great body of American teachers measures up 
so nobly to the highest ideals of moral life. This fact 
is the greatest influence that exists for the ethical up- 
building of our future men and women. 

2. Insistence on regularity of attendance. — In twenty 
years, from 1875 to 1895, the school attendance 
in England increased from 1,500,000 to 6,000,000. 
During the same period the number of arrests of 
juvenile delinquents decreased from 14,000 to 5000 
per annum. The only discernible cause for this de- 
crease is the influence of the schools, a fact which is 
a remarkable commentary on the moral effect of keep- 
ing children at school. It has generally been found 
that juvenile crime increases during the long summer 
vacation, when the children have nothing to do and 
when they are not under the control of the school. 
The maintenance, under the direction of teachers, 
of vacation schools, summer schools, and public play- 
grounds has resulted in a great diminution of offenses 



MORAL INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOL 297 

by children against the law. One pohce judge testifies 
that during the time that such schools were in session 
the number of juvenile offenders in his court de- 
creased sixty per cent, and that as soon as the summer 
schools closed the fact became at once apparent by 
the increased number of arrests. 

The boy out of school who is not employed is likely 
to get into mischief. The truant is the embryo tramp, 
and the surest way to stamp out the vagrant evil is 
to prevent the formation of nomadic habits by the 
child. Regular attendance inculcates regular habits 
and teaches the boy to stick to his job. Compulsory 
attendance laws, efficiently enforced, thus become a 
strong moral agency. Many a child is without any 
good home influence, and the street is a poor place in 
which to learn steady habits, to imbibe a proper sense 
of duty, or to acquire high ideals. To make the school 
wholesome, attractive, and interesting is the work of 
the teacher. But to require the child to attend regu- 
larly is the work of the state and the parents. "Will 
you please make my boy come to school? He will 
not come unless I bring him," said a Berlin mother to 
a school principal as she deHvered her six-year-old boy 
to him one morning. ''It is your business to see that 
your boy is in school, and mine to attend to him 
when he is here," replied the principal; and he added 
a serious warning in the words, ''I am afraid, madam, 
that you have failed in the training of your boy, else 
you would not have such trouble in getting him to 
school." 

The large majority of the children will be reached 
by the ordinary influences of school life. But there 



298 teaching: its aims and methods 

will always be a few that cannot be so reached, and 
these constitute the small minority from whom future 
vagabonds are recruited. It is for these largely that 
restrictive laws must be made and courts maintained. 
So the school and the state must make unusual efforts 
to save the few who constitute the greatest element of 
future danger. Enforcement of regular attendance 
will have a decided influence upon the moral character 
of the child. 

Nor is it sufficient to rely upon rewards, incentives, 
or other superficial means of securing regular attend- 
ance, although many of these are unobjectionable and 
may have a temporary effect. The child must learn 
to be regular, because his irregularity defeats the work 
of the school and therefore trespasses upon the rights 
of others. Moreover, irregularity is a bad business 
practice and hardly prepares one for a steady job. 
What has been said of irregularity applies also to want 
of punctuaHty. The same argument holds true against 
this evil, while on the other hand the moral effect 
of the habit of punctuality is as beneficial as that 
produced by the habit of regularity. Tardiness delays 
the work of the school and is therefore a sin against 
others. No parent can say, ''If I choose to keep my 
child home or let him come late, it is my business, and 
nobody's else," for these evils affect the whole life 
of the school and therefore are the business of the 
school authorities. Emphasis should be laid upon the 
moral aspect of these matters as the final consideration. 

3. Importance of tlie physical side. — The condition 
of the body has much to do with one's moral Hfe. 
Henry Ward Beecher once said, ''Some people deserve 



MORAL INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOL 299 

more credit for being decent, than others do for 
being saints." Doubtless he had in mind the weak- 
nesses and inherent tendency to evil that some men 
seem to possess, but I think that his statement may 
well be applied to physical conditions as well. It is 
very hard for one to be good-natured if indigestion is 
disturbing the internal machinery, or if rheumatism 
is racking one's body. There are times of peculiar 
suffering when it takes all the qualities of the "saint" 
to keep one ''decent." 

Medical inspection in the schools, in correcting 
bodily ailments, in preventing the spread of disease, 
in insisting on proper hygienic conditions, and in 
making the school more wholesome and sanitary, thus 
making p^ossible more efficient intellectual work and 
adding to the comfort and happiness of the children, 
should have a great influence upon the moral character 
of the pupils. 

Every time the teacher requires the child to stand 
erect when he recites, to carry his body properly when 
he walks or marches, or to sit properly, he is giving the 
child a feeling of self-respect, a command over him- 
self, and a conscious power fundamental to the estab- 
Hshment of a moral sense. Nothing so surely indicates 
moral degeneracy as a slouching gait, a lack of physical 
poise, and a want of dignified bodily carriage, as wit- 
nessed, for example, in the ordinary tramp. The man 
who has control over his body, created in the image 
of God, and who carries it well, is apt to possess some- 
thing of godlikeness in his character. 

A great deal of attention is now being given to the 
nourishment of children. It has been found that no 



300 teaching: its aims and methods 

good intellectual work is possible when the body is 
not well nourished. Some schools are furnishing food 
at cost for those who can afford to pay, and free 
lunches to poor children. Such practice is perfectly 
logical if the school is to perform its duty. Who 
can say how large a factor bodily weakness is in de- 
termining moral accountabiUty ? Many a man takes 
a drink because of the abnormal craving which follows 
eating the badly selected, ill-adapted, ill-cooked, and 
poorly combined food he has been served. The truth 
is that many a woman is responsible, in a large meas- 
ure, for her husband's intemperate habits. Instead 
of satisfying his normal appetite, the food creates an 
abnormal one; instead of meeting the needs of the 
body, it loads the system with unwholesome substances 
which cannot be digested and which often cause the 
victim to seek reUef in alcoholic drink. Nothing 
would do more for the cause of temperance than a 
knowledge of the hygienic values of foods and a proper 
understanding of the science and the art of cooking. 
The teaching of domestic science, therefore, should 
not only add materially to the health and comfort 
of the American people, but it should also have a salu- 
tary effect upon their moral life. 

4. The employment of the pupils' time. — Every 
teacher recognizes that the secret of good order in 
the classroom is found in keeping every child busy 
upon some task in which he is interested. The trouble 
is to find work that meets this demand, that is, that 
arouses and holds the child's interest. The extension 
of the school curriculum to include a much wider 
variety of subjects, especially those that call for 



MORAL INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOL 301 

handiwork, has aided materially in the solution of the 
problems of school government. There could be no 
better argument for the success of the modern school. 
We still find critics who are demanding a return to 
the old, narrow course of study consisting mainly of 
the '^ Three R's." Such a reactionary movement 
would not silence the critics: indeed, their number 
would increase a hundredfold, and justly so. I have 
shown elsewhere (page 231) that the needs of modern 
life put duties upon the school that were not dreamed 
of half a century ago. Discipline is better in the 
schools, not only because the teachers are better 
trained but also because the schools are offering suit- 
able, practical, and interesting work for the children. 
It is very rare now that the child must be driven to 
school; he loves to go because it attracts and interests 
him. This is the best evidence that the modern school 
is proceeding along the right lines. 

The school is compelled to offer a wide curriculum, 
especially in the field of manual and industrial arts, 
subjects which are so much neglected in the home and 
which are so essential in this industrial age. The 
greater the variety of subjects offered, the more 
nearly will it be possible to meet the needs of the 
individual child, a principle which is the slogan of mod- 
ern education. And in the meeting of these needs 
not only will the problem of discipline be solved and 
the moral character of the child be formed, but in 
addition the pupil will be fitted for that occupation 
in life for which he is best adapted. 

Industrial schools, wherever established, are proving 
conclusively that these ends will be attained. I have 



302 teaching: its aims and methods 

elsewhere described a visit to an industrial school which 
had been organized at the outset principally as a 
school for incorrigibles, but which soon ceased to have 
that purpose for the simple reason that its boys soon 
ceased to be incorrigible. Additional details may be 
interesting as they have a bearing upon this theme. 
One boy who had been expelled from nine public 
schools was pointed out. Another had drawn a knife 
upon a teacher. A third was an habitual truant. 
One had spent a term at a reform school. Many of 
these boys had an unsavory history. Yet, I never 
saw better order in any other school. Every boy was 
happy, contented, obedient, and interested in his work. 
Truancy and incorrigibiUty were unknown. Some of 
them were engaged in mechanical drawing, others were 
setting type, a number were installing electric wires 
for lighting, telephoning, and for house-bells, and 
others were engaged in various branches of wood-work 
and metal-work. 

Upon leaving the school these boys engaged in use- 
ful trades and became good citizens. The principal 
showed me letters from employers of his old boys in 
which every one of them testified that the boys were 
making good. How much better for the community 
to spend money for the support of such a school than 
to spend it for court expenses and for jails! And 
besides the individual redemption of these boys, they 
are saved to society to add to its wealth rather than 
to be a menace and an expense. 

Suitable employment in the school thus becomes a 
tremendous moral force, not only in the successful 
management of the school itself, but also in the prepa- 



MORAL INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOL 303 

ration for useful citizenship and in the formation of 
moral character. To possess a trade or a calling and to 
be employed in it, is a great safeguard against a 
vicious life. The great temptations come to a man 
not when he is employed but rather when he is out of 
work or at leisure. It thus becomes the duty of the 
school to teach the child how to employ his time when 
he is not employed, how properly to occupy himself 
during his leisure hours. This knowledge is the best 
antidote against the saloon or the place of evil resort, 
to which many go because they do not know how to 
spend their time when free from work. 

The education that fails to teach the art of self- 
employment will neglect one of the most important 
moral agencies. Social, political, and religious activi- 
ties, and books, furnish abundant means of growth, so 
that no one need be without a constant stimulus to 
improve and enjoy himself, especially while the needs 
of his fellowmen are forever inviting him to useful 
activity. 

5. Influence of environment. — There is no doubt 
of the uplifting and refining influence of one's sur- 
roundings. The presence of a beautiful picture, like 
a ''Sistine Madonna," Leonardo's ''Last Supper," or 
Hoffman's ''Christ in the Temple," exercises an ele- 
vating effect upon those who are brought in contact 
with it. The decoration of the windows and walls 
of churches and cathedrals with works of art, especially 
with illustrations of scenes and characters from the 
Bible, is sure to exercise a holy influence upon the 
worshiper. 

So, too, excellent pictures and flowers in the home 



304 teaching: its aims and methods 

and the schoolroom serve wonderfully to stimulate 
moral life. Patriotism also is taught by portraits of 
Washington, Lincoln, Grant, and by such pictures as 
''Washington Crossing the Delaware" and ''The 
Battle of Gettysburg," provided such pictures are 
explained as to their historical or artistic value. Even 
if no explanations are given, the child will uncon- 
sciously absorb something elevating. 

Beautifying the schoolroom and schoolgrounds not 
only cultivates the aesthetic sense, but the ethical and 
the spiritual as well. And these influences in the school 
are the more important because the home is so often 
destitute of them. A strong argument for the play- 
ground movement is found in the fact that it removes 
the children for a part of the day at least from the 
unwholesome atmosphere of the street and the de- 
grading life of many homes. I have shown elsewhere 
how such movements have materially diminished crime. 
Life on the street offers little promise of moral uplift; 
on the contrary it often counteracts the influence 
of school and the home and debases the character. 
Environment can thus be made an important agency 
in the moral training of children. 

6. Material from fact and fiction. — Children are always 
interested in stories. From history, biography, and 
general hterature an abundance of material most fit- 
ting to inspire ethical ideals can be selected. Stories 
of Alexander the Great, Napoleon, Cromwell, Wash- 
ington, Lincoln, Gladstone, Garfield, McKinley, and 
a host of others are of never-faiHng interest to children. 
Gems of literature can be taught, selections from 
masterpieces presented, and the pupils can be led to 



MORAL INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOL 305 

acquire a taste for the good and an abhorrence for 
the bad. This field supplies an unlimited amount of 
suitable material which can be classified for use in 
connection with any specific lesson to be taught. 
Schaeffer's "Bible Readings for Schools"^ contains an 
excellent arrangement for the morning exercises. It 
suggests Scripture readings bearing upon every feature 
of moral as well as religious life. The following are 
some of the selections having a particular bearing 
upon morals: "David and Jonathan," "The Unmerci- 
ful Servant," "The Laborers in the Vineyard," "The 
Good Samaritan," "The Prodigal Son," "Love your 
Enemies," "Forgiveness," "Humility," "The Virtu- 
ous Woman," "Purity," "Strong Drink," "The 
Slothful and the Diligent," "Exhortations to various 
Virtues," "Love or Charity." 

The law in most states permits the reading of the 
Scriptures at the opening of school without comment or 
explanation. The determination to prevent sectarian 
discussions in the public school has in some states led 
to the placing of restrictions upon Bible reading. No 
one wants the doctrines of any one sect taught in the 
public school, and yet the American people do want 
their children trained in the essentials of faith, which, 
as I have already shown, is the foundation of morals. 
Everybody would object to the teaching of the peculiar 
dogmas of any church in schools supported by public 
funds. In our eagerness to avoid all appearance of 
sectarian teaching, we have gone to an extreme and 
excluded fundamentals upon which all agree. There 
is a feeling of dissatisfaction with the present situation, 
^ The American Book Co., New York. 



3o6 TEACHING: ITS AIMS AND METHODS 

not only on the part of religious bodies, but also among 
educators, and with the American people at large. 

The following incident shows that parents of all be- 
Hefs would welcome a change in this respect if a sane 
and judicious plan were adopted. A young teacher 
had charge of a school in a rural community. She 
was a devoted and conscientious girl who believed that 
education includes the development of the spiritual side 
as well as the other sides of the child. When she had 
gained the confidence of the parents, she visited every 
family and asked permission to give her pupils some 
simple religious instruction. Catholics, Presbyterians, 
Methodists, Baptists, and Jews alike not only gave their 
consent but actually welcomed the suggestion most 
gladly. She therefore introduced Bible study without 
friction and with most excellent results. Of course the 
teacher must possess discretion and common sense. 

From the standpoint of morals what one of the 
selections from Schaeffer would need be restricted as to 
"comment or explanation"? Indeed, should not every 
one of these passages be explained, so that the children 
may understand and apply them? Let the reading 
of one of the stories, like the ''Good Samaritan," 
''David and Jonathan," or "The Slothful and the 
Diligent," be followed by a simple explanation and by 
concrete application, and such teaching could not fail 
to have most beneficent effect upon the children. 

So, too, stories from history and fiction can be util- 
ized. Publishers are supplying the schools with an 
abundance of literature drawn from history and fiction 
which is suitable for children of any age. There are 
stories of the great men of all lands and all periods, 



MORAL INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOL 307 

clothed in language that a child can understand, to 
be had for five cents a copy. The teacher is thus able 
not only to tell the story of the heroism, patriotism, 
unselfishness, or nobility of some character, but also 
to put suitable stories into the hands of the children. 
This practice, available to every teacher, affords the 
richest means of moral instruction. 

7. Morals ideals in sports. — The sports of children 
deserve much greater attention than is being paid to 
them. Many teachers give little attention to the 
games of their pupils at recess or out of school. If 
assigned to recess duty, they regard it as a bore, and 
meet it as a perfunctory task rather than as a re- 
markable opportunity, not only to gain the good-will 
of the children, but also to shape their intellectual and 
moral life. The recess should be a joy to both teacher 
and pupil, because it furnishes an opportunity for vig- 
orous, wholesome, and joyous outdoor sport. Many a 
teacher gets inspiration for her school work on the 
playground and learns lessons in discipline there that 
never can be obtained elsewhere. The teacher that 
can and will enter into the sports of her pupils is sure 
to find discipline easy, besides being able to exert a 
powerful influence upon all sides of the child's life. 
Often children reveal their real natures on the play- 
ground rather than in the schoolroom. How often 
is it found that boys who are indifferent to their lessons, 
and perhaps insubordinate to discipline, are the leaders 
in sports and the dominating spirits of the playground. 
Experience has often proved that it is these boys that 
become, in later life, the leaders in the world's activi- 
ties. What an opportunity is thus furnished to study 



3o8 teaching: its aims and methods 

the real child and so to shape his development that 
the best in him may be brought out and the world 
made the richer because of his life! 

The president of a city board of education said to 
me, '' Whenever we need a new principal we are choos- 
ing a man, for this reason. For years we had been 
having trouble with discipline in one of our schools and 
were puzzled to know what to do. We finally placed 
a young man in charge who entered into the sports 
of the boys. He organized baseball, football, and 
other games, making it a rule that no boy who was 
delinquent either in his conduct or his studies could 
participate in a contest. The problem of discipline 
has been solved, and it would be hard to find a more 
enthusiastic or loyal class of children anywhere. We 
think that a man understands boys, knows their games, 
is interested in them, can enter into the spirit of their 
sports, and therefore we are bound to have at least 
one man in every school." Whether a man or a 
woman, the teacher must be able to enter into the life 
of the children on the playground. 

A teacher witnessed a match game of ball between 
two rival schools. There was a great deal of profanity 
indulged in by the boys. The following Saturday a 
return match was played and the teacher was asked 
to umpire. He consented on condition that there was 
to be no bad language used. Before opening the game, 
one of the captains called the two teams together and 
said, ''Boys, no swearing today. The umpire will not 
stand for it." There was no bad language used during 
the game. It was an unusual opportunity of which 
the young man had taken advantage. 



Moral instruction in the school 309 

Many sports lend themselves peculiarly to the in- 
culcations of moral ideals. Generosity, honesty, un- 
selfishness, truthfulness, cooperation, and the sense of 
fair play must be practiced in baseball, football, and 
many other games. And it is difficult to teach these 
lessons in the daily school work, for the reason that 
there is no struggle for supremacy, as in games. The 
boy is not thrown upon his own resources, and there 
are few occasions to exercise generosity, unselfishness, 
and other virtues. The sports of children can thus 
be made an important agency for their moral up- 
building. Neglect of this agency may make the 
recess a danger which will counteract pretty nearly all 
the good influences of the school. 

8. Moral basis of all school activities. — The teacher 
should be so imbued with all the imxportance of char- 
acter building that every school activity should be 
made to have an ultimate moral basis. The child 
must be regular in attendance, not to escape punish- 
ment, not to get on the honor roll, not in order to get 
his name in the newspaper, and not even for the sake 
of keeping up with his class, however unobjectionable 
these devices may be. He must learn to be regular 
and punctual because it is right, because it is his duty, 
because failure to do so hinders the work of the school 
and trespasses upon the rights of others. Parents also 
often need to learn the same lesson. "I keep my boy 
home because I need him," says a father. A mother 
keeps her daughter home because she has a dress- 
maker in the house. ''Surely a day or so cannot m.ake 
much difference," she says. Parents delay their return 
in September from the seashore, explaining, ''If the 



3IO teaching: its aims and methods 

children are a week or two late it will not make much 
difference. They will easily catch up." Underlying 
all this is the thought still prevalent with many 
parents: ''It is my child and I have a right to do what 
I please with him." 

The state has long since established the fallacy of 
this reasoning by enacting laws protecting children 
from the brutality of parents, and laws regarding child 
labor and school attendance. Parents should be im- 
pressed with the fact that irregularity of attendance 
is a wrong to the child, a wrong to the other pupils, who 
are hindered in their work, and a wrong to the state, 
which is furnishing the opportunity for education and 
which has a right to expect the best results. 

(a) Cheating. — Not enough attention is paid to the 
great school evil of dishonesty. I have known it to 
be winked at by the teacher in order that her class 
might make a better showing with the school authori- 
ties. I once took charge of a school in New York 
State that was under the control of the Board of 
Regents. It is well known that their regulations re- 
garding examinations are very expKcit. And yet the 
violation of those rules was most common. There 
had grown up one code of morals for the school and 
another for life. I heard some of my pupils testify 
in prayer-meeting and saw them cheat the next day 
in their school work. And yet I never held those 
young people accountable for their dishonesty, for 
their teachers had violated the express rules of the 
Regents in order to make a good showing and the 
pupils knew it. I say that I did not hold them 
accountable, for when the enormity of the evil was 



MORAL INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOL 311 

pointed out to them they were appalled and gen- 
erally ceased from its further practice. 

Children should be taught that cheating is pure 
deception, is lying, is stealing, and that in the final 
analysis they are wronging themselves. If the teacher 
herself shows her honesty and integrity, and trusts 
her pupils to do right, most of them will respond. 
A distinction should be clearly made between cheating, 
lying, and stealing, which are sins against God's law, 
and whispering, tattling, and irregularity, which are 
violations of the teacher's restrictions. 

(b) The discipline. — Discipline should be not a 
temporary makeshift, but a steady, persistent, con- 
scientious effort to correct faults and establish good 
habits in the children. The moral aim should be the 
basis of all school work whether it be in the class exer- 
cises, the recreations, or the discipline. Obedience 
to the laws of the home, of the school, of the state, 
of nature, and of God should be thoroughly inculcated, 
so that the child does right from an inner impulse, 
until later he is able to govern himself. When this 
attitude has been reached, pupil government will be 
possible, and will be a healthful means of stimulating 
and fixing moral life. 

What to Teach. — It is impossible within the Hmits 
of this work to answer this question in detail. For 
such detailed discussion the reader must turn to works 
on this subject. Every teacher should possess a 
handbook on moral instruction as a guide in this 
important work.^ I may suggest, however, at least 

^ I recommend the following among the many works in this subject: 
Clark— "Systematic Moral Instruction," A. S. Barnes Co., New York, 



312 teaching: its aims and methods 

the following topics which should be presented to the 
pupils from time to time, with plenty of suitable illus- 
tration. Much of the material for illustration will be 
gathered by the teacher from her own daily experi- 
ences, and from books, as has already been shown. 
Clark discusses many topics, giving maxims, proverbs, 
texts, and quotations bearing upon each, which are 
to be memorized. For example, 

On Obedience: 

" True obedience neither procrastinates nor questions. 

On Kindness: 

"Kind words can never die, 
Cherished and blest, 
God knows how deep they lie, 
Stored in the breast." 



On Courtesy: 



"Courtesy is to do and say, 
The kindest things in the kindest way." 

On Friendship: 

"When you find one good and true. 
Change not the old friend for the new." 

At least these topics should be treated: cheerfulness, 
cleanliness, friendship, fair play, helpfulness, gratitude, 
charity, honesty, thrift, courage, honor, truthfulness, 
temperance, good habits, duty, obedience, self-control, 
service. These and many others should be adapted 
to the child's actual experience and he should be given 
practice in each. 

offers an excellent arrangement of topics for each grade. Shearer — 
"Morals and Manners," Macmillan Co., New York. Adler — "Moral 
Instruction of Children," Appleton, New York. " Ethics of Success," — 
Readers I, II, III, Silver, Burdett & Co., New York. 



MORAL INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOL 313 

Such instruction is surely needed in the American 
pubhc schools, and if pursued with intelligence, in a 
proper spirit on the part of the teacher, with an 
understanding of its great need, it is likely to receive 
the cooperation of parents and thus be of inestimable 
value in shaping the lives of our future citizens. A 
repubhc cannot long continue whose citizenship is 
wanting in either intelligence or moral rectitude. 



INDEX 



Abelard, as a teacher, 39 
Accounts, of the farm, 274 
Accuracy, in teaching reading, 152 

in teaching arithmetic, 194 
Agriculture, instruction in, 262 
Aims, in teaching reading, 146 

in teaching language, 163 
Alcohol, instruction concerning, 226 
Altruistic motive, of the teacher, 36 
Apperception, Herbartian, interpre- 
tation of, 132 
Aristctlj, on method, 4, 142 
Arithmetic, importance of, 190 

methods in teaching of, 196 

must be practical, 200 
Arnold, Thomas, as a teacher, 39 
Art, of teaching, 8, 63 
Associations, of teachers, 47 
Attendance, irregular, a drawback, 

74 
regularity of, fosters morals, 296 

Bacon, discovery of inductive 

method, 142 
Backward children, a hindrance to 

the school, 73 
problem of, 75 
Balliet, on training the muscles, 237 
Basketry, in manual training, 244 
Beecher, 88, 298 
Boards of education, encourage 

professional growth, 51 
often employ cheap teachers, 62 
Bom teacher, 18, 38 
Brass work in manual training, 246 
Butler, on German schools, 20 

Capitals, in teaching spelling, 159 
Charlemagne, universal education 

of, 5 
Cheating, from moral standpoint, 

310 
Chicago, death rate of, 217 



Child, the, what it should know, 59 
stories for, in reading, 153 
care of, in the home, 260 

Christ, as a teacher, 4 
method of, 8, 119 

Citizenship, preparation for, 36, no, 

313 
Claxton, on normal graduates, 22 
on school attendance, 1 78 
on the school farm, 276 
Clay-modeUng, in manual training, 

244 
Clearness, essential in reading. 151 
"Clever Hans," 195 
Clothing, knowledge of essential, 

259 
Cochran, on preparation of foods, 

255 
Colonization, of feeble-minded, 85 
Comenius, "Orbis Pictus" of, 152 

aphorism of, 166 
Committee of Fifteen, on geography, 

169 
Composition, use of in spelling, 159 

use of in language work, 165 

the teaching of, 168 
Concentric plan, in arithmetic, 197 
Concrete, care in use of, 64 
Confucius, as a teacher, 39 
Contagious diseases, 222 
Continuation schools, 283 
Control, of school must be kept, 97 
Cooking, importance of, 256 
Copper- work, in manual training, 

246 
Corporal punishment, 107 
Courses, pedagogical, 51 

enminations from, 58 

flexibility of, 88 

in geography, 175 

in Trenton model school, 202 

in household arts, 244 

comprehensiveness of, 301 



3i6 



INDEX 



Criticism, of our schools, 54 

of teaching speUing, 155 

injustice of, 231 

in earher times, 277 
Crito, selection from, 115 
Crops, of different countries com- 
pared, 268 

rotation of, 270 

change of, 271 
Culture epoch theory, 242 

Dairy, study of products of, 273 

Darwin, 88 

De Garmo, on induction, 143 

Deductive method, 144 

Defective children, 75 

Deportment marks, 105 

Dewey, John, 74 

Dictionary, use of in spelling, 159 

Diesterweg, on method, 133 

Discipline, from moral standpoint, 

311 
Diseases, contagious, 222 

knowledge of essential to the 
teacher, 258 
Domestic science, need of teaching 
.of, 57 
discussion of, 250 
Dramatization, in language work, 166 
Drawing, in manual training, 245 
Drill, not to be neglected, 64 
in pronunciation and reading, 151 
in spelling, 158 
Drink, compared with use of 
tobacco, 228 

Eating, knowledge concerning de- 
ficient, 224 
Economics, of the home, 252 
Education , science of, 3 

progress of, 41 
Educational journals, 43 
Efficiency, aflfected by backward 
children, 75 
in teaching spelling, 160 
in educational practice, 277 
Equipment, of school, 67 
Elimination, from course of study, 

58 
Eliot, on manual training, 239 
Employment, influence upon morals 
of, 303 



Environment, influence of, 36 
effect upon language, 162 
influence upon morals, 303 

Excursions, in geography teaching, 

173 
Expense, of maintaining schools, 

6o_ 
Expulsion, as punishment, 166 
Eyesight, defects in, 219 

Faculty meetings, 46 
Farm, migration from, 262 

accounts of to be kept, 274 
Farm boys, as teachers, 26 
Feeble-minded, colonization of, 85 
Fertilizers, knowledge of, necessary, 

269 
Fiction, use in moral instruction, 

. 304 . 
Firmness, in discipline, 99 
First-aid, to be taught, 259 
Food, knowledge concerning, 222, 

244 
Foods, preparation of, 255 

harmony of, 257 
Foreign-born children, 78 
France, abolition of religious in- 
struction in, 293 
Francke, on training teachers, 5 
Franklin, 143 
Froebel, the kindergarten, 5 

self-activity of, 19 

Garden, the school, 274 

Gary, schools of, 72 

Geography, former limitations of, 56 

scope of, 169 

aims of, 1 70 
German methods, 19, 126 
German teachers, efficiency of, 140 
Gettysburg, battle of, 35 
Girls, as teachers, 27 
Goddard, on the feeble-minded, 85 
Grammar, method of teaching of , 167 

necessity of, 163 
Grammar grades, course of study in, 

186 
Greece, idea of education in, 4 
Greenwood, on pedagogical litera- 
ture, 6 
Growth, in teaching, 41 

means of, 43 



INDEX 



317 



Hall, on manual training, 239 
Hamilton, on science, 2 
Harris, on Pestalozzi, 5 

on the teaching of history, 178 
Health, duty of school regarding, 217 
Heating, defective, 220 
Herbart, educational science of, 5 
Herbartian movement, 132 
Hinsdale, on teaching history, 178 
History, the teaching of, 1 78 

aims and values of, 180 

methods in teaching of, 182 
Holden, on practical education, 267 
Home, changed attitude of, 57 

influence of upon English, 162 

training girls for, 249 
Home economy, meaning of, 250 
Home geography, 172 

scope of, 254 
Home-project plan of Massachusetts, 

265 
Hopkins, Mark, as a teacher, 39 

personahty of, 133 
Household arts, training in, 248 
Hunger, of school children, 69 
Hygiene, instruction in, 217 

Ideals, to be implanted, 34 
Illinois, vocational schools in, 285 
Immigrants, education of, 34 
Incorrigibles, 79 
Industrial arts, school of, 79, 87 

industrial conditions, 231 
Insects, study of, 271 
Institutes, for teachers, 50 
Instruction, methods of, 135 

in agriculture, 262 

in morals, 292 
Intemperance, frequent cause of, 218 
Intermediate grades, history in, 183 

James, on shop-work, 241 
Jena, battle of, 140, 184 

field trip of boys from, 172 
Jews, training of children of, 183 

Keller, Helen, 120 

Kendall, on teachers for defectives, 
84 
on criticism of schools, 278 

Knowledge, first essential in teach- 
ing, IS 



Knowledge of subject-matter, 134 
of foods necessary, 218 

Lake Placid Conference on domestic 

arts, 253 
Landon, on the use of grammar, 163 

on composition, 168 
Lange, Karl, 132 
Language, training in, 162 

aims in, 163 

lessons in, 164 
Lecture method, 139 
Leipsic, battle of, 35 

lessons on foods in school of, 224 
Letter- writing, the teaching of, 166 
Lincoln, call for troops of, 32 
Lindsay, work with boys of, 32 
Literature, reading of by teachers, 
46 

suitable for children, 151, 153 

aids in moral instruction, 304 
Livelihood, a motive for becoming a 

teacher, 25 
Local teachers' meetings, 49 
Locke, John, theory of, 19 
Lyon, Mary, as a teacher, 39 

Macaulay, on Bacon, 142 
McAlister, on manual training, 231, 

234 
McMaster, on history, 180, 181 
Mann, Horace, Seventh Annual 
Report of, 130 

fallacy of A B C method, 50 
Manual training, importance of, 231 

definition of, 233 

aim of, 238 

place of, 239 

methods and topics in, 242 

formerly cared for in the home, 79 
Map-drawing, 196 
Marden, on efficiency, 88 
Marketing, knowledge of necessary, 

256 
Material, selection of in reading, 153 
McMurry, Special Methods of, 
146 

on teaching geography, 170, 176 

on teaching history, 179, 188 
Medical inspection, 65, 299 
Meetings, of teachers, 46 
Mentally subnormals, 80 



3i8 



INDEX 



Method, definition of, 132 

essentials of, 134 

lecture method, 139 

inductive, 142 

deductive, 144 
Methods, waste in wrong, 62 

progress in, 124 

of instruction, 135 

in teaching reading, 149 

in teaching spelling, 157 

in teaching language, 164 

in teaching history, 182 

in teaching arithmetic, 196 
Metal- worki fig, in manual training, 

245 
Milk, testing of, 273 
Model school, course in arithmetic 

of, 202 
Moral instruction, means of, 295 

what to teach, 312 
Morals, instruction in, 292 

employment aids in fixing, 300 
Motives, for becoming a teacher, 24 

altruistic motives, 36 

Napoleon, conquest of Germany of, 

3,5, 139, 185 
Narcotics, dangers of, 227 
Naturalness, to be cultivated in 

reading, 152 
Newark, industrial school of, 87, 99 
New Jersey, certificating of teachers 
in, 40 
report on backward children, 78 
report on colonization, 85 
course in arithmetic of, 191 
destruction of crops in, 272 
definition of vocational schools of, 
284 
Newton, Sir Isaac, 42, 88 
Noise, proper and improper, 98 
Nolan, on destructive insects, 272 
Normal schools, conditions of ad- 
mission to, 40 
course in arithmetic of, 201 
Nurse, school, 223 

Obediwice, natural and necessary, 

93 
Oral work, for little children, 135 
in spdling, 158 
in arithmetic, i9< 



Order, maintenance of, 91 

what it is, 95 
Organizations, of teachers, 6 
O'Shea, on manual training, 240 
Oswego normal school, 131 
Overton, on intemperance in eating, 
224 

Parables, of Christ, 9 
Parents, attitude of towards nar- 
cotics, 229 
Parker, Col., work of, 113 

on Horace Mann, 130 

inaugurated the Quincy methods, 

131 
Partiahty, little danger of, loi 
Part-time work, discussion of, 265, 

289 
Pasteur, 143 
Patriotic motive, 32 
Pedagogical hterature, 44, 51 

courses in, 51 
Personahty, of the teacher, 38, 

133 
Penmanship, not to be neglected, 

281 
Pestalozzi, on education, 4, 5 

follower of Christ's method, 10 

as a teacher, 39 

method of, 62 

on method, 132 

personality of, 133 
Pfiingst, on "Clever Hans," 195 
Physical defectives, 79 
Physician, school, 223 
Physics, need of greater knowledge 

of, 56 
Physiology, instruction in, 217 
Plato, on education, 4 
Prevocational schools, 283 
Primary grades, history in, 182 
Privileges, deprivation of, 105 
Professional growth, 49 
ProvinciaHsms, to be corrected, 151 
Prussia, defeat of in 1806, 35 
Public health, duty of school 

towards, 217 
Publishers, enterprise of, 14S 
Punishments, discussion of, !•• 

principles concerning, 103 

kinds of, 103 

corporal, 107 „ 



INDEX 



319 



Questioning, art of, 1 1 1 
Questions, characteristics of, 118 
Quincy, efficiency of methods of, 

113, 131 
Quintilian, on method, 5 

Reading, of educational journals, 43 

of standard educational works, 44 

of general literature, 46 

aims in, 146 

methods in, 149 

as to content and form, 281 
Recitation, use of text-book in, 112 
Rein, on Froebel and Herbart, 5 
Religion and morals, instruction in, 

293 
Reproof, as punishment, 104 
Richards, on home economics, 254 
Rosenkranz, 114, 134 
Rowe, on death-rate, 217 

on defective eyesight, 220 

on defective hearing, 221 
Rules, to be few, 96 

in spelling, 159 
Rural schools, decrease of, 108 

improvement of, 264 

Salaries, of men and women, 30 
of teachers, janitors, etc., 60 

Sanitation, knowledge of necessary, 
258 

Schaefifer, on moral instruction, 305 

School, a social center, 70 
duty of as to public health, 217 
study of agriculture in, 263 
improvement in, 264 
must meet new demands, 282 

School gardens, 263, 274 

Schools, vacation, 72 
supplementary and continuation, 
283 

Schmidt, Karl, 4 

Science of teaching, discussion of, 62 

Scobey, course in arithmetic of, 201 

Scott, Sir Walter, 88 

Seeds, study of, 266 

Self-activity, 19 

Self-improvement, as m©fciv« for W- 
coming a t«icher, 30 

Self-sacrifice, demanded of teacher, 

c ^^ 

Sequence, of topiea, 197 



Servants, treatment of, 260 

Six-and-six plan, 286 

Smith, "Systematic Methodology" 

of, 142 
Social center, the school as, 70 
Socrates, as a teacher, 39 

personality of, 133 
Socratic method, illustration of, 1 14 
Soils, study of, 268 
Special classes, 82 
Spelling, place of, 155 

aims in teaching of, 156 

methods and devices in, 156 
Spelling-bee, 160 
SpeUing book, need of, 155 
Spencer, Herbert, loi 
Spiral plan, in arithmetic, 197 
Sports, moral ideals from, 307 
Springfield, historic examinations in, 

55 
•Stoy, field trip with school of, 172 

on repetition, 196 
Subnormal children, 75 
Summer schools, for teachers, 51 
Suspension , as a punishment, 106 
System, in teaching spelling, 158 

Teacher, attitude of towards nar- 
cotics, 229 

character of, 295 

growth of, 38 

for subnormals, 8$ 

must keep control, 97 

must discover defectives, 219, 220 

personahty of, 36, 133 

the bom teacher, 18, 38 
Teachers, American, method of, 140 

appreciation of weakness of, 57 

need of, 22 

new teachers, 29 

untrained teachers, 23 

meetings of, 46, 47 

institutes for, 50 

training schools for, 50 

German, efficiency of, 140 

unfit, waste from, 60 
Tftachcrs' associations, 6 
Teaching, tendency of to narrow, 49 

growth in needed, 41 

definition of, i, 14 

as an art, 8 

as a sd«ice, 2 



320 



INDEX 



Temperance, instruction in, 225 
Text-books, free, 68 

on temperance, 227 

supplementary, 148 

use of in history, 183 

use of in the recitation, 112 
Tobacco, compared to strong drink, 
228 

danger of to children, 229 
Trade school, definition of, 237 
Training, in reading, 153 

in language, 162 
Transportation, problem of, 68 
Three R's, proper place of, 280 
Trenton, course in arithmetic in 

model school of, 202 
Tuition, when first charged, 68 

Universities, preparation of teachers 
in, 7 
study of agriculture in, 263 

Vacation, schools for, 72 
drawback of long ones, 71 

Vermont, legislative investigation 
in, 17 

Vineland, summer school at, 82 

Vocational schools, 284 

Von Moltke, on the German school- 
master, 35 



War, offers few opportunities to 

show patriotism, 32 
Warner, on reading, 154 
Waste, an American characteristic, 

. 53 . 

in selection of material, 54 

in employment of unfit teachers, 
60 

in wrong methods, 62 

from physical conditions, 65 

from limited use of the school 
plant, 70 

from too much repetition, 136 

other causes of, 73 
White, on language training, 164 

on grammar, 167 

on home geography, 175 

on arithmetic, 194 
Wisconsin, work of in vocational 

education, 285 
Women, enlarged sphere of, 248 
Woodward, on the trade school, 

237 
on manual training, 243 
Written work, in method, 157 
in spelling, 158 
in arithmetic, 198 



York, Pa. 
288 



part-time schools of, 



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250 New Questions for Debates (paper) 15 

How to Organize and Conduct a Meeting (Henry) 75 

Handbook of Parl'y Usage: Instantaneous Arbitrator (Howe) .50 
New Parliamentary Manual (Palmer) 75 

How to Appreciate the Drama (Marble) 1.25 

Well Planned Course in Reading, A (Le Row)* 1.00 

Ten Weeks' Course in Elocution, A ((Toombs)* 1.25 

Essential Steps in Reading and Speaking (Fox) 1.50 

Manual of Elocution and Reading (Brooks)* 1.10 

New Science and Art of Elocution, (Fenno)* 1.25 

Extemporaneous Speaking (Pearson and Hicks) 1.25 

The Power of Speech (Lawrence)* 1.25 

How to Use the Voice in Reading and Speaking (Ott)* 1.25 

How to Gesture. Illustrated. (Ott)* 1.00 

How to Attract and Hold an Audience (Esenwein)* . . . . 1.00 

Psychology of Public Speaking (Scott)* 1.25 

Contents of a7iy of the above books on request 

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